DIM   M©M©IRY  OF. 


THE 


Poetry  of  the  Talmud 


BY 

S.    SEKLES. 


NEW   YORK  : 

PUBLISHED  BY  THE  AUTHOR. 
1880. 


Entered  according  to  Act  of  Congress,  in  the  year  1880,  by 

S.    SEKLES, 
in  the  Office  of  the  Librarian  of  Congress,  at  Washington. 


Steam  Press  of 
H.  O.  A.  Industrial  School, 
76th  St..  near  Third  Ave. 


V5 

- 

HA!  a/ 


PREFACE. 


Ours  is  the  century  of  research  and  exploration.  The 
weird  autographs  of  former  civilizations  have  been  deciphered. 
The  early  beginnings  of  history  have  been  successfully  reached. 
The  lurking  places  of  antiquity,  so  mysterious  in  their  origin 
and  solemn  in  their  associations,  have  disclosed  their  secrets. 
From  mount,  and  cliff,  and  sepulchre  what  wondrous  lights 
have  been  shed,  recompensing  man  for  his  courage,  endurance, 
insight,  and  enterprise.  It  is  once  more  the  legend  of  en- 
chantment, and  modern  science  has  broken  the  spell  and  bid- 
den a  world  again  arise. 

Prominent  among  the  monuments  of  antiquity,  which  have 
been  made  the  subject  of  modern  research,  is  the  Talmud. 

To  the  historian  and  general  reader  it  may  not  appear  with 
the  fascination  with  which  the  Sphinx  is  invested,  bnt  to 
the  student  of  literature  and  to  the  descendant  of  that  race, 
whose  ancient  history  it  illumined,  it  must  possess  a  peculiar 
interest.  Its  age,  its  history,  its  character,  its  encyclopaedic 
contents,  and  the  hundreds  of  men  whose  opinions  it  cites,  its 
wealth  of  illustrations  and  anecdotes,  its  flood  of  light  on 
Jewish   thought  and  customs,  and  the  veneration  with  which 

+ 

it  is  regarded  by  numerous  descendants  of  those  whose  names 
and  views  it  has  immortalized — surely,  no  obelisk  or  temple 
ruins  can  compete  with  this  work. 

And  apart  from  the  question  of  archaeology,  the  student's 


iv  PREFACE. 

interest  is  further  enhanced  by  the  reflection  that  the  Talmud 
is  recognized  as  an  authority  in  the  religion  and  ceremonial  of 
the  large  majority  of  the  Jewish  race  wherever  scattered. 

Daring  the  ages  when  the  Jews  remained  strangers  to  the 
outside  world,  formed  a  state  within  the  state  and  were  ex- 
cluded from  participation  in  seculiar  studies,  they  exhausted  all 
their  mental  abilities  in  penetrating  into  the  secrets  of  the 
dialectical  debates  in  the  Talmud,  whose  ethical  axioms  be- 
came the  guide  of  their  lives. 

It  was  reserved  for  our  age  to  study  the  Talmud  not  merely 
for  its  ethical  and  religious  value,  but  also  for  its  literary, 
historical,  and  scientific  value. 

Within  recent  decades  the  territory  of  the  Talmud  lias  been 
diligently  explored — chiefly  by  German  authors — for  its  con- 
tributions to  the  better  knowledge  of  antiquity  ;  information 
in  respect  to  the  sciences  of  medicine,  zoology,  botany,  astron- 
omy, mathematics,  etc.,  have  been  collected  and  commented 
upon.  They  have  given  the  results  of  their  labors  in  mono- 
graphs of  more  or  less  value,  the  whole  forming  a  kind  of 
Talmudical  library  and  an  introduction  to  the  work  itself, 
often  of  exceeding  value  to  the  specialist  and  of  signal  utility 
in  popularizing  the  study  of  the  Talmud. 

Nor  is  this  renewed  activity  limited  to  Jewish  scholars; 
learned  Christians,  especially  students  of  Oriental  languages, 
eagerly  strive  to  gain  new  light  for  their  studies  from  the 
pages  of  the  Talmud. 

In  the  present  volume,  the  author  introduces  the  reader  to 
fragments  of  Oriental  poetry,  scattered  through  the  pages  of 
Talmudical  literature.     He  has  collected  some  of  the  proverbs, 


PREFACE.  V 

hymns,  songs,  and  parables.  In  its  preparation  the  author's 
greatest  difficulty  has  been  the  abundance  of  material,  but  he 
has  sought  to  cull  the  best  selections,  and  trusts  that  he  has 
been  successful. 

He  has  consulted  the  works  of  previous  laborers  in  this 
field,  and  his  grateful  acknowledgments  are  especially  due  to 
Graetz,  Delitzscb,  Dukes,  and  Hamburger  for  the  assistance 
their  works  have  afforded  him.  Nor  can  be  in  this  connection 
omit  to  express  his  thanks  to  the  kind  friends  who  have  aided 
him  in  the  revision  of  his  work,  among  others  to  Miss  Deborah 
Kleinert  and  Mr.  A.  Henschel  for  their  poetical  renderings. 

In  the  hope  that  this  volume  may  serve  to  awaken  fresh  in- 
terest in  the  Talmud  among  the  people  and  throw  new  light 
on  its  character  and  contents,  the  author  intrusts  it  to  the 
reader. 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER   I. 

PAGE 

History  of  Talmudical  Poetry,        .....  1 

1.  Jewish  Poetry  from  the  Second  Temple  to  the  Maccabees,  .  1 

2.  From  the  Maccabees  to  the  Destruction  of  the  Temple,  .  6 

3.  Mishna-Talmudical  Times,        .....  8 

CHAPTER   II. 
Forms  of  Talmudical  Poetry,  .  .  .  .  .14 

CHAPTER  III. 

Liturgy,  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  19 

1.  Prayers,  ........       20 

2.  Benedictions,        .......  25 

3.  Songs  and  Hymns,    .  .  .  .  .  .  .27 

a.  Drawing  of  Water  for  the  Altar,       ....  28 

b.  Festooning  the  Altar,        .            .....  28 

c.  Illuminating  and  Torch-Dances,        ....  29 

4.  Mashal, 31 

5.  History,     ........  35 

CHAPTER  IV. 
Weddings  and  Wedding-Feasts,         .  .  .  .  .37 

CHAPTER  V. 

1.  Funeral  Orations  and  Elegies,  ....  41 

I.  The  Cause  of  Deatb 42 

II.  Untimely  and  Sudden  Death,  ....  42 

III.  Reflections  upon  the  Signification  of  Death,     .  .  .44 

IV.  The  Irreparable  Loss  to  Mankind,      ....  44 
V.  Commiseration  of  the  People,     .            .            .            .            .45 

VI.  Special  References,      ......  45 

2.  Stanzas  by  Women    .......      48 


Ylll 


CONTENTS. 


CHAPTER  VI. 


Valedictories. 


PAGE 
51 


CHAPTER  VII. 

Fables  in  the  Talmud. 

1.  The  Lion  and  the  Ibis,  . 

2.  The  Fox  and  the  Fishes, 

3.  The  Fox  and  the  Lion,  . 

4.  The  Fox  and  the  Wolf, 

5.  The  Iron  and  the  Trees, 

6.  The  Rivers  and  the  Euphrates, 

7.  The  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris, 

8.  The  Forest-Trees  and  the  Fruit-Trees, 

9.  The  Straw,  the  Chaff,  and  the  Stubble, 

1 0.  The  Fox  as  a  Singer, 

11.  The  Serpent,        .... 

12.  Two  Dogs,     .... 

13.  The  Rooster  and  the  Owl, 

14.  The  Mule,  the  Donkey,  and  the  Pig, 

15.  The  Fox  in  the  Vineyard, 

16.  The  Tail  as  Leader, 

17.  Lie  and  Vice,       .... 

18.  The  Power  of  the  Tongue, 

Lost  Fables,    ..... 


57 

59 

60 

61 

61 

62 

63 

63 

64 

64 

64 

66 

66 

67 

67" 

67 

68 

69 

69 

71 


CHAPTER   VIII. 
Proverbs  of  Ben  Sira, 

1.  Joshua  ben  Sirach,  .... 

2.  Contents  of  the  Proverbs,     . 

3.  Proverbs  of  Ben  Sira  in  Talmud  and  Midrash, 

4.  Alphabet  of  Ben  Sira, 


74 

74 
75 
78 
84 


Riddles  in  the  Talmud, 


CHAPTER  IX. 


87 


Miscellaneous,     . 

1.  A  Rabbi  Poet, 

2.  Messianic  Predictions, 


CHAPTER  X. 


97 
97 


CONTEXTS.  IX 

CHAPTER  XI. 

PAGE 

The  Hyperbole  of  the  Talmud,  .  .  .101 

1.  Hyperbolic  Aphorisms,       ......       102 

2.  Conceptions  of  God,       .  .  .  .  .  .  104 

3.  Hyperbolic  Slanders,  ......       106 

4.  Hyperbolic  Legends,      ......  108 

5.  Enigmatical  in  place  of  Improper  Language,      .  .  .110 

6.  Metaphysical  Hyperboles.        .  .  .  .  .  Ill 

7.  Historical  Narratives,         .  .  .  .  .  .112 

8.  Bar  Bar  Chana,  ......  113 

9.  Scientific  Axioms,    .  .  .  .  .  .  .116 

CHAPTER  XII. 
Elijah  in  the  Agadah,      ......  118 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

Foreign  Myths,  .......      125 

1.  Greek  Myths  in  the  Talmud,    .....  125 

2.  Egyptian  Myths,      .  -  .  .  .  .  .131 

APPENDIX. 
Hebrew  Texts,         .......  135 


Poetry  of  the  Talmud. 


CHAPTER  I. 

HISTORY  OF  TALMUDICAL  POETRY. 

1.  Jewish  Poetry  from  the  Second  Temple  to  the 

Maccabees. 

The  history  of  Jewish  poetry — in  contradistinction  to  Hebrew 
poetry,  represented  by  the  different  books  of  the  Bible — com- 
mences with  the  rebuilding  of  the  Temple. 

When  Judah  first  went  into  exile,  the  priests,  the  sons  of  Zadok, 
who  had  kept  aloof  from  idolatry,  carried  along  the  Torah  (the 
Pentateuch);  the  disciples  of  the  prophets  took  with  them  the 
books  of  prophetical  speeches  ;  the  Levites,  the  sublime  Psalms  • 
the  wise  men,  the  great  treasure  of  proverbs,  and  the  scribes  the 
chronicles  of  happier  times.  The  earthly  wealth  was  destroyed, 
but  the  Treasure  saved.  ,  They  brought  into  foreign  land  a  rich, 
glorious,  and  manifold  collection  of  works,  from  which  they  de- 
rived knowledge,  culture,  and  consolation. 

The  precepts  of  the  Pentateuch,  which  they  had  neglected  and 
disobeyed  in  the  native  country,  they  now  studied  and  observed 
upon  foreign  ground,  and  it  was  especially  Ezra  who  impressed 
a  new  character  upon  the  whole  system  of  Judaism.  The  Book 
of  Law  was  to  him  the  emanation  of  God,  revealed  to  Moses. 
He  stamped  his  own  conviction  upon  the  minds  of  the  Baby- 
lonian-Persian congregations,  among  whom  already  prevailed  the 
inclination  to  cling  to  their  religion  and  nationality,  and  he  even 
caused  prominent  men  to  join  him  in  the  return  to  Palestine, 

where  the  national  affairs  had  assumed  a  sombre  aspect. 

1 


2  HISTORY    OF   TALMUDICAL   POETRY. 

With  the  powerful  assistance  of  Nehemiah  he  formed  an 
assembly,  consisting  of  learned  men  and  of  representatives  of  the 
people,  which,  under  the  name  of  Keneset-haggedolah  (the  great 
assembly),  passed  laws  and  ordinances  for  the  proper  organization 
of  the  Jewish  religious  body. 

Soon  after  the  time  of  Nehemiah,  a  peculiar  institution  was 
called  into  existence,  which,  with  more  or  less  influence,  and 
possibly  without  any  interruption,  existed  down  to  the  destruction 
of  the  Second  Temple — the  Sanhedrin,  the  high  council,  consist- 
ing of  seventy  or  seventy-one  members.* 

They  strengthened  the  work  commenced  by  Ezra  and  Nehe- 
miah, by  new  regulations  in  a  thorough  manner,  and  while  they 
took  the  Pentateuch  as  their  guide,  they  still  produced  a  total 
change. 

All  new  ordinances  for  the  ritual  communal  life  during  the 
two  following  centuries  were  their  work  ;  new  rules,  which  tradi- 
tion refers  to  Ezra  or  which  are  quoted  as  Soferite  institutions 
(dibre  Soferim),  were  the  creation  of  that  body.  They  laid  the 
sound  foundation  for  the  structure  which  had  to  withstand  the 
attacks  of  powerf ul  foes  through  thousands  of  years . 

They  ordained  the  regular  reading  of  the  Torah  on  every  Sab- 
bath and  holiday,  and  the  translating  of  it  into  the  vernacular 
of  the  people.  Even  on  Mondays  and  Thursdays,  when  the 
country  people  visited  the  markets  of  the  cities,  a  few  verses  of 
the  Pentateuch  were  to  be  read. 

The  text  of  the  Bible,  which  was  formerly  written  with  anti- 
quated Phoenician  or  old  Babylonian  characters,  they  transcribed 
into  more  modern  characters,  such  as  were  in  use  on  the  shores 
of  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris  (Ketab  Ashurit),  and  which  were 
familiar  to  the  Jews  in  Babylon. 

*  No  more  appropriate  time  could  be  designated  during  the  whole  period, 
from  Nehemiah  down  to  the  more  historical  period,  for  calling  into  exist- 
ence such  an  institution.  Glowing  zeal  for  the  laws  of  the  Pentateuch 
was  then  in  full  vigor,  and  naturally  the  leaders  imitated  the  example  set 
by  Moses  in  selecting  seventy  elders.  Very  probably,  the  first  Sanhedrin 
was  selected  from  the  different  families  who  returned  to  Palestine,  with 
the  high-priest  as  the  presiding  officer. 


THE   SOFERIM.  3 

By  the  regular  reading  of  the  Torali  and  the  introduction  of 
popular  characters,  there  was  awakened  a  revival  and  an  inter- 
est for  the  faith,  which  soon  gave  a  new  religious  character  to  the 
whole  nation.  The  Law  became  the  spiritual  property  of  the 
masses,  and  their  hearts  the  sanctuary  where  the  word  of  God 
was  enshrined. 

.Another  institution  of  great  consequence  was  about  this  time 
called  into  existence.  The  Soferim  opened  schools  for  the  youths, 
where  the  laws  were  expounded  and  love  for  them  instilled  into  the 
hearts  of  the  disciples.  The  spiritual  leaders  of  the  people  recom- 
mended to  future  generations,  "  Raise  up  many  disciples"  (Abot 
i.  1),  and  what  they  recommended  to  others,  they  undoubtedly  did 
themselves.  Such  a  school  certainly  existed  in  Jerusalem  {Bet 
Maad),  as  Yose  ben  Yoeser  of  the  time  of  the  Hasmoneans  speaks 
of  it  as  a  known  institution. 

The  leaders  of  the  people  also  organized  synagogues  {Bet  ha- 
Kenesset)  and  composed  formulas  for  prayers  which  excelled  by 
reason  of  their  simplicity,  and  are  still  recited — although  in  a 
somewhat  extended  form — in  the  synagogues  of  the  present  day. 

These  energetic  men,  called  in  the  Talmudical  literature  Sofe- 
rim, produced  in  the  Jewish  nation  the  peculiar  zeal  to  search, 
expound,  and  speculate  upon  each  verse  and  word  of  the  Bible, 
to  develop  therefrom  some  hidden  truth  or  principle,  which  in  the 
course  of  the  following  centuries  became  still  further  developed. 
Although  that  tendency,  to  find  everything  in  the  Bible,  some- 
times produced  heresies  and  mysticisms,  still  the  thinking  and 
reasoning  faculties  of  the  nation  were  thereby  sharpened.  "If 
there  still  existed  a  trace  of  relationship  between  them  and  the 
other  nations  of  Semitic  origin,  the  newly  acquired  peculiarity  to 
read  and  to  search  in  the  Scriptures  entirely  obliterated  it " 
(Graetz). 

It  is  remarkable  that,  in  this  long  period  of  almost  two  centu- 
ries, during  which  the  Jewish  commonwealth  was  thus  wondrously 
strengthened,  developing  its  own  and  accepting  foreign  elements, 
not  a  single  name  of  any  personality  has  been  preserved  who 
contributed  to  that  structure,  destined  to  withstand  the  storms  of 


4  HISTORY    OF   TALMUDICAL   POETRY. 

thousands  of  years.  Did  the  spiritual  leaders,  the  founders  of 
these  new  precepts,  from  excessive  modesty  withdraw  their  names 
from  publicity,  to  keep  from  their  creations  every  appearance  of 
personal  influence  ?  "Was  posterity  ungrateful  and  neglectful  in 
recording  their  names  for  the  memory  of  future  generations  ?  Or 
were  they  not  prominent  or  talented  enough  to  deserve  individual 
distinction,  while  the  commonwealth  has  rather  to  thank  for  its 
development  their  combined  efforts,  in  which  the  individual  was 
completely  absorbed  ?  History  and  tradition  are  silent,  and  the 
facts  recorded  from  that  period  are  very  few. 

About  the  activity  of  one  man  of  that  time,  history  or  rather 
legend  has  preserved  some  facts,  and  although  reliable  history 
knows  very  little  about  Simon  I.,  he  must  have  been  a  most  pro- 
minent man.  He  lived  about  300-270  before  Christian  era,  and 
was  the  only  high-priest  of  the  house  of  Jeshua  or  Yozadek  of 
whom  anything  praiseworthy  is  recorded.  He  stood  as  high-priest 
not  only  at  the  head  of  the  commonwealth  and  of  the  Sanhedrim 
but  also  as  teacher  at  the  head  of  the  schools.  His  sayings, 
which  have  been  preserved,  evince  a  true  religious  spirit.  "On 
three  things  the  world  is  stayed,  on  the  Torah,  and  on  the 
worship,  and  on  the  bestowal  of  kindnesses"  (Abot  i.  2).  The 
honor  in  which  he  was  held  found  expression  in  the  magnificent 
eulogy  of  Ben  Sira,  the  writer  of  Ecclesiasticus. 

Describing  the  services  which  Simon  I.  had  rendered  to  the 
Temple  and  to  the  city  of  Jerusalem,  he  said  : — 

"A  saint  among  his  brethren,  a  crown  to  his  people 
Was  Simon,  son  of  Onias,  the  high-priest. 
In  his  days  the  Temple  was  completed. 
And  its  walls  were  fully  restored. 
He  caused  the  city  to  be  fortified, 
And  new  wells  dug  for  the  temples. 
How  fatherly  did  he  care  for  his  people  ! 

How  beautiful  was  he,  when  coming  from  the  temple, 
He  appeared  from  within  the  veil ! 
He  was  as  the  morning  star  in  the  midst  of  clouds, 
And  as  the  moon  in  the  days  of  Nissan: 


HELLENIC    ATTACKS   ON    JUDAISM.  5 

As  the  sun  shining  upon  a  palace, 

And  as  the  rainbow  in  the  cloud; 

As  the  waving  wheat  in  the  field, 

As  the  Persian  lily  by  the  fountain, 

And  as  the  tree  of  Lebanon  in  the  days  of  vintage; 

As  the  perfume  of  frankincense  upon  a  censer, 

As  a  collar  of  gold  of  variegated  beauty, 

And  adorned  with  precious  stones; 

As  a  fair  olive-tree  whose  boughs  are  perfect, 

And  as  the  tree  of  anointing  whose  branches  are  full." 

While  the  Soferim  were  adding  stone  to  stone,  in  order  to 
strengthen  the  structure  of  Judaism  and,  in  accordance  with  their 
principle,  "Make  a  fence  to  the  Torah"  (Abot  i.  1),  imposed 
from  time  to  time  additional  restrictions,  so  as  to  keep  the  people 
at  a  safe  distance  from  forbidden  ground,  towards  the  latter  part 
of  that  period  appeared  a  formidable  foe,  who  threatened  to 
demolish  all  their  efforts. 

By  the  conquests  of  Alexander  the  Great  in  Asia,  the  Jews 
came  in  contact  with  the  Greeks ;  and  Hellenic  manners  and 
conceptions  threatened  to  exercise  a  decided  influence  upon  the 
future  moral  development  of  the  Jews  for  good  and  evil.  While 
the  exertions  of  Ezra  and  the  Soferim  had  openly  the  tendency 
to  isolate  the  Jews  from  the  demoralizing  influence  of  the  neigh- 
boring nations,  the  Jewish  admirers  of  Grecian  polished  manners 
strove  to  approach  and  possibly  to  unite  with  the  strangers. 
They  might  have  referred  to  the  sublime  speeches  of  the  proph- 
ets, who  considered  as  their  highest  ideal,  the  union  of  Israel 
with  other  nations  ! 

But  if  these  Hellenists  in  Palestine,  at  first,  might  have  been 
inspired  by  the  purest  intentions,  in  hoping  to  be  able  to  combine 
two  nations  of  heterogeneous  character,  they  soon  lost  their  Jew- 
ish ground  and  became  estranged  to  their  national  religion  and 
their  nation. 

When  the  Hellenistic  spirit  had  reached  its  highest  point,  and 
used  even  force  to  demolish  Judaism,  there  a  reaction  took  place. 
Judaism  arose  with  renewed  strength,  and  by  the  victories  of  the 


6  HISTOEY   OF   TALMUDICAE    POETRY. 

Maccabees,  a  new  era,  the  golden  age  of  the  Second  Temple,  com- 
menced. 

From  the  time  of  the  Soferim  date  probably  the  oldest  parts 
of  the  Tefila  or  Eighteen  Benedictions,  the  first  three  and  the 
last  three  benedictions,  as  they  are  already  quoted  in  the  Mishna 
under  special  names  (Kosli  ha-Shanah  iv.).  Besides  some  for- 
mulas for  prayer  (Yomah  vi.  2;  vii.  1;  Berachot  ix.),  merely 
a  few  sayings  of  the  colleges  are  preserved  in  the  Talmud  (Abot 
i.  1,  2;  Yomah  vi.). 

Nevertheless  that  period  was  productive  in  poetical  works, 
as  Isaiah  Second,  the  unknown  prophet,  whose  prophecies  form 
the  second  part  of  the  Book  of  Isaiah,  from  Chapter  40  to  the 
end,  different  psalms;  and,  according  to  modern  exegetists,  also 
Koheleth  and  the  Song  of  Songs  were  written  during  this  time. 
The  gnomology  of  Joshua  ben-Sira  ben-Elieser,  a  priest  of  Jeru- 
salem, who  lived  (about  200  b.  c.  )  in  the  saddest  epoch  of  the 
Jewish  state,  just  preceding  the  wars  of  the  Maccabees  (although 
not  admitted  into  the  Canon),  forms  a  precious  treasure  preserved 
from  the  time  of  the  Soferim. 

2.  From  the  Maccabees  to  the  Destruction  of  the 

Temple. 

Although  the  greatest  portion  of  the  people  had  become  faith- 
less to  their  God,  had  been  allured  to  run  after  Grecian  deities, 
and  assumed  Grecian  manners,  there  still  existed  a  party  of  pious 
men.  The  more  the  leaders  of  the  people  and  the  masses  inclined 
to  strange  gods,  the  more  did  these  men  cleave  to  the  belief  of  their 
ancestors,  and  the  more  did  they  jealously  watch  over  their  inher- 
itance. And  when  Judah  recovered  again  his  independence,  and 
the  heroes  of  the  house  of  Matathias  ruled  as  God-fearing  men, 
then  the  national  party  acquired  also  the  political  power,  and 
with  a  rejuvenated  spirit  subjected  the  ancient  laws  to  a  revision. 

With  the  Bible  in  hand,  they  endeavored  to  develop  therefrom 
the  rules  of  life,  and  to  justify  existing  regulations  from  the  time 
of  the  Soferim,  as  based  upon  the  word  of  God;  and  even  dur- 
ing the  following  years  of  disturbance,  under  Hyrcanus  and  his 


hillel's  beneficial  influence.  7 

successors,  the  men  of  science  worked  with  little  interruption 
for  the  maintenance  of  religion.  New  methods  of  dialectics 
were  invented,  lively  debates  about  ritual  practices  were  held,  and 
while  the  outside  world  engaged  in  bloody  fights  and  petty 
court  intrigues,  the  colleges  discussed  theological  and  juridical 
questions,  and  although  harassed  by  the  events  of  the  times  and 
even  persecuted  by  the  political  powers,  they  continued  to  develop 
the  principles  for  the  preservation  of  Judaism. 

Of  the  greatest  importance  and  consequence  was  the  activity  of 
Hillel  and  his  school  (although  his  antagonist,  Shamai,  also 
largely  contributed  to  the  upholding  of  the  religion),  and  rightly 
the  Talmud  said  about  him:  "Hillel  was  to  his  time  what  Ezra 
was  to  his  time,"  a  restorer  of  the  ancient  law  (Succah  20). 

The  influence  of  Hillel  exerted  itself  over  the  whole  domain  of 
Jewish  science;  he  raised  the  study  of  the  unwritten  law  to  a 
very  high  reputation,  and  gave  it  a  greater  precision  than  it  had 
heretofore  attained.  To  the  school  of  Hillel,  in  conjunction 
with  that  of  Shamai,  is  attributed  the  Megillath  Beth  Hashmo- 
naim,  a  work  on  the  history  of  the  Maccabees,  no  longer  extant, 
and  also  the  Megillath  Taanith,  a  collection  of  laws  and  notes  on 
the  penitential  times  and  solemnities  of  the  Jews,  which  is 
quoted  in  the  Mishna  (Taanith  ii.  8).  He  was  also  the  founder 
of  a  family  and  race  of  hierarchs  in  the  wisdom  and  administration 
of  the  law,  who  held  the  dignity  of  Nissim  or  "patriarchs"  in 
thirteen  generations  for  about  four  hundred  years. 

If  the  glorious  victories  of  the  Maccabees  and  the  restoration 
of  the  interrupted  temple-service  still  inspired  some  national 
poets,  who,  with  the  elegance  and  fire  of  the  years  of  yore,  sang 
praises  to  God,  which  were  incorporated  into  the  existing  collec- 
tion of  psalms;  soon  after,  the  sweet  sound  of  poetry  vanished, 
not  to  be  revived  for  a  long  period  of  years,  and  not  a  trace  of 
poetical  productions,  like  those  of  happier  days,  from  the  time 
after  John  Hyrcanus  remained.  What  the  people  needed  for 
devotion  was  supplied  by  the  poetry  of  former  days,  and  for 
knowledge  they  read  the  existing  records  of  the  past.  Only 
history  was  produced  to   preserve   the   memory  of   deeds  and 


8  HISTORY    OF   TALMUDICAL   POETRY. 

events;  the  recent  past  and  the  immediate  present  offered  abun- 
dant material. 

The  historians,  whose  names  are  lost,  composed  their  works 
after  the  style  of  the  Bible;  they  did  not  use  the  dry  forms  of  the 
chronicler,  but  composed  their  narrative  in  a  flowing,  vivid  style. 
The  few  fragments  remaining  prove  that  also  for  history  the 
Hebrew  language  was  used,  and  still  existed  almost  pure  from 
Aramaisms. 

The  original  parts  of  the  First  Book  of  the  Maccabees,  which 
formerly  existed  in  Hebrew  (now  only  in  a  Greek  translation), 
were  undoubtedly  composed  about  this  time,  although  revised  at 
a  later  period.  The  history  of  Hyrcanus  was  soon  after  his 
death  compiled  under  the  title  Dibre  ha-Yamim,  " chronicles  of 
the  time,"  of  which  a  small  fragment  is  preserved  in  the  Talmud. 
• 

3.  Mishna-Talmudical  Times. 

The  Temple  was  laid  in  ruins,  and  the  remnant  of  the  people 
turned  away  from  their  cherished  fatherland,  to  enter  upon  a 
pilgrimage  which  lasted  many  centuries. 

What  prevented  this  homeless  people  from  degenerating  into 
brutalized  vagabonds,  into  a  vagrant  horde  of  gypsies  ?  Dr.  Graetz, 
in  his  "  History  of  the  Jews"  (Vol.  IV.),  graphically  answers  this 
question.  "The  Jewish  people  carried  along  the  ark  of  the 
covenant,  which  breathed  into  their  hearts  ideal  aspirations  and 
even  illumined  with  an  apostolic  glory  the  badge  of  disgrace 
affixed  to  their  garments.  The  proscribed,  outlawed,  universally 
persecuted  Jew  felt  a  sublime,  noble  pride  in  being  singled  out  to 
suffer,  but  at  the  same  time  to  perpetuate  a  religion  which  reflects 
eternity,  and  by  which  the  nations  of  the  earth  were  gradually 
educated  to  a  knowledge  of  God  and  to  morality,  and  from  which 
are  to  spring  the  salvation  and  redemption  of  the  world.  The 
consciousness  of  his  glorious  apostolic  office  sustained  the  sufferer, 
and  even  elevated  such  sufferings  to  become  a  portion  of  his 
sublime  mission.  A  people  who  disdain  the  present,  but  have 
their  eyes  steadily  fixed  on  the  future  are  sustained  by  study,  and 


JEWISH    SPIRITUAL   ACTIVITY.  9 

the  exuberant  effusions  of  poetry  instill  balm  into  their  lacerated 
hearts. " 

When  Vespasian,  while  besieging  Jerusalem,  received  the  fugi- 
tive K.  Yochanan  ben  Sakkai,  and  gave  him  leave  to  ask  a  favor, 
the  Eoman  general  must  have  derisively  smiled  when  the  Kabbi 
modestly  begged  to  be  permitted  to  open  a  school  at  Jabne  ;  the 
emperor  could  not  suspect  that  by  this  insignificant  act  power- 
less Judea  would  acquire  the  strength  to  survive  vigorous  iron 
Romanism  for  thousands  of  years.  R.  Yochanan,  as  well  as  his 
disciples  and  their  successors,  for  a  period  of  five  hundred  years — 
the  Talmudical  epoch — were  almost  exclusively  occupied  Avith  the 
farther  construction  of  the  religious  life;  and  with  uninterrupted 
zeal  collected,  sifted,  and  expounded  all  the  ancient  traditions. 
They  had  all  their  exertions  and  mental  capacities  directed  to 
the  exposition  of  the  Holy  Word  transmitted  to  them,  to  be  used 
as  a  guide  in  all  new  relations  of  life ;  and  this  activity  was  so 
predominant  and  exclusive  that  no  other  branch  of  knowledge, 
except  as  far  as  it  would  further  the  peculiar  drift  of  their  studies, 
could  find  room  at  its  side. 

Whatever  their  thinkers  thought,  whatever  poetical  feelings  or 
the  fire  of  their  imagination  produced  in  their  minds,  was  con- 
nected with  the  word  of  God  as  an  exposition  or  a  deduction. 
Exposition  was  the  ruling  spiritual  activity  for  many  centuries  in 
the  history  of  Jewish  life.  They  expended  energy  and  talent, 
the  deepest  feelings  of  the  heart,  and  the  best  powers  of  the  mind 
to  drink  from  the  everliving  fountain  of  divine  revelation.  They 
cherished  it  as  an  inexhaustible  treasure,  from  which  fresh  sup- 
plies of  spiritual  food  for  encouragement  and  comfort  may  con- 
tinually be  taken  ;  they  found  therein  answer  to  every  question 
of  the  present. 

This  spiritual  activity  branched  off  into  two  directions,  known 
under  the  names  Hdlacliali  and  Agadah. 

The  Halacliali,  a  word  which  means  custom  or  usage,  as  well 
as  practice,  constitutes  the  elementary  material  of  the  oral  law, 
the  faithful  preservation  and  the  conscientious  transmission  of 
which  were  the  vital  objects  of  this  period.     The  Halachah  is 


10  HISTORY   OF   TALMUDICAL   POETRY. 

dialectic  and  juridical,  its  conclusions  are  chiefly  derived  from 
the  Pentateuch,  the  exclusive  Book  of  Law,  by  means  of  syllogistic 
formulas.  The  last  results  of  these  conclusions  and  diligent 
researches  were  considered  binding  for  strict  observance.  With 
these  were  combined  ancient  customs  received  and  sanctioned  by 
tradition. 

The  Agaddh  (homily)  is  the  poetical  and  fantastical  part  of 
Talmudical  literature.  It  incloses  the  blossoms  which  enlivened 
the  colorless  subject  matter  of  the  laws  by  their  brilliant  tints 
and  sweet  fragrance,  and  was  properly  compared  to  the  "lily 
work "  which  adorned  the  pillars  in  the  temple  of  Solomon. 
While  the  Halacliali  engaged  the  skill  of  erudition,  it  sometimes 
led  the  mind  into  a  labyrinth  of  dialectics,  and  its  final  legal 
decisions  appear  as  the  result  of  complicated  debates.  The 
Agadah,  on  the  other  hand,  evinced  deep  feeling,  which  rose  up 
to  the  loftiest  and  holiest  heights,  proclaimed  comfort  and  reli. 
gious  knowledge,  fortified  the  minds  for  the  sufferings  of  the 
present,  and  whose  inmost  fountain  was  the  deepest  religious 
belief. 

The  German  poet,  Heine,  who  received  Talmudical  training  in 
his  youth,  in  his  poem  "Judah  ben  Halevy,"  says  about  the 
Halachah  and  Agadah  : 

The  heavens  pour  clown  upon  us 
Lights  of  two  distinctive  descriptions  : 
Glaring  daylight  of  the  sun, 
And  the  moonlight's  softer  lustre. 

Thus  two  different  lights  the  Talmud 
Also  sheds,  and  is  divided 
In  Halachah  and  Agadah  ; 
Now  the  first's  a  fighting  school, 

And  the  latter,  the  Agadah, 
I  should  rather  call  a  garden  : 
Yes,  a  garden,  most  fantastic, 
Comparable  to  the  other, 

Which  in  days  of  yore  was  planted 
In  the  town  of  Babylon — 


THE   HALACHAH    AND   AGADAH.  11 

Great  Semiramis's  garden, 

That  eighth  wonder  of  the  world. 

High  upon  colossal  pillars. 
Palms  and  cypresses  were  standing, 
Golden  oranges,  fair  flow'r  beds, 
Marble  statues,  gushing  fountains. 

Firmly,  skilfully  united 
By  unnumber'd  hanging  bridges, 
Which  appear'd  like  climbing  plants, 
And  whereon  the  birds  were  rocking. 

Solemn  birds,  large,  many  color'd, 
All  deep  thinkers,  never  singing, 
While  around  them  finches  flutter'd. 
Keeping  up  a  merry  twitter. 

The  two  branches,  Halachah  and  Agadah,  of  Talmudical  liter- 
ature, appear  in  the  Talmud  interchanging  with  each  other. 
When  the  student  had  followed  the  contests  of  dialectic  athletes 
to  solve  a  juridical  or  exegetical  problem,  his  overstrained  mind 
finds  a  welcome  rest  in  a  bed  of  flowers  from  the  garden  of  the 
Agadah. 

But  both  are  couched  in  the  same  peculiar  style,  which  (as 
Delitzsch  says)  we  may  call  brachylogy,  the  expression  of  ideas 
and  facts  in  the  most  concise  manner.  Here  the  words  appear 
as  anagrams,  or  rather  like  abbreviations  or  contractions  of  ideas. 
The  word  does  not  necessarily  represent  one  conception  or  idea, 
but,  on  the  contrary,  it  sometimes  appears  as  the  focus  where 
several  ideas  are  concentrated.  Its  poetical  productions  are, 
therefore,  also  of  a  peculiar  character,  and  must  be  differently 
classified  from  those  of  our  modern  languages.  They  are  alto- 
gether epigrammatic,  concentrating  the  ideas,  so  as  to  form  sur- 
prising contrasts.  They  are  seldom  picturesque  or  idealizing 
imitations  of  nature;  but  they  appear  rather  like  the  flashes  of 
lightning,  descending  from  higher  regions  to  illumine  terres- 
trial scenes. 

These  poetical  productions,  as  they  appear  in  Talmudical  lit- 
erature, form  chiefly  two  classes:  Mashal  and  Shir.     The  Mashal 


12  HISTORY   OF   TALMUDICAL   POETKY. 

(a  simile  or  parable),  the  production  of  practical  discernment, 
almost  in  contradiction  with  the  generally  accepted  idea  of 
poetry,  comprises  sayings  of  the  wise,  popular  proverbs,  riddles, 
fables,  parables,  and  allegories.  The  Shir  (song)  appears  in 
Talmudical  literature  merely  as  brief  wedding  or  funeral  hymns. 

According  to  statements  in  the  Talmud,  E.  Meir  and  Bar 
Kappora  each  composed  three  hundred  fables  (a  round  number 
expressing  a  great  many),  as  also  other  prolific  poets  produced  a 
large  number  of  fables,  but  of  these  only  a  small  number  have  been 
preserved.  Sayings  of  the  wise  and  popular  proverbs  appear  in 
great  abundance,  scattered  through  the  different  volumes  of  the 
Talmud  and  Midrash,  and  especially  the  Mishna  Abot  or 
Pirke  Abot  (Chapters  of  the  Fathers)  consist,  to  a  great  extent, 
of  maxims  of  the  Jewish  Fathers,  whose  names  are  mentioned  in 
its  pages,  and  which  is  chiefly  valued  as  a  compendium  of  prac- 
tical ethics,  although  it  is  not  without  a  mystical  element  in 
portions  of  its  fifth  and  concluding  chapter.  The  Abot  cle  Rabbi 
Nathan  is  another  large  collection  of  sayings,  wherein  the  origi- 
nal maxims  of  R.  Nathan  appear  enlarged  and  edited  at  a  later 
time.  The  treatise  Derech  Erets  contains  maxims  for  social  life; 
while  Derech  Erets  Suta  describes  rules  for  scholars,  and  Perek- 
ha-Sholom  exalts  the  value  of  peace. 

The  literature  of  songs  (or  rather  carmen)  consists  of  elegies- 
recited  by  Sufdanin  or  mourners,  and  a  few  occasional  composi- 
tions at  ordinations,  weddings,  receptions,  feasts,  and  other  pub- 
lic gatherings. 

More  fruitful  was  the  production  of  prayers  and  benedictions, 
of  which  a  large  collection  for  public  or  private  devotion  is  pre- 
served in  the  Talmud.  To  these,  also,  belong  the  oldest  parts 
of  the  Agadah  shel  Pesach,  a  collection  for  prayers  and  reflec- 
tions for  family  service,  still  in  use  on  the  eve  of  Passover.  It  is 
written  in  the  style  of  the  old  Agadah,  and  contains,  besides  seri- 
ous reflections  on  the  importance  of  the  occasion,  playful  conver- 
sations of  the  Rabbis,  which,  to  any  one  not  initiated  into  the 
peculiar  dialectical  method  of  the  Talmud,  appears  not  only  unin- 
telligible, but  ridiculous. 


THE    MIDRASII    WORKS.  13 

Of  the  different  Agadie  expositions  of  the  Bible,  wherein  the 
word  of  the  Bible  is  analyzed,  compared,  and  expounded  in  all 
possible,  ingenious,  and  far-fetched  ways,  the  greatest  number 
possess  a  high  poetical  hue.  These  expositions  are  collected  in 
different  Midrash  works,  as  Bereshit  Rabba  (commentary  on 
Genesis),  Shemoth  Rabba  (on  Exodus),  Sifra,  Sifri,  Yalkut, 
Yelamdenu,  and  some  others  of  different  periods,  ranging  from 
the  second  to  the  eleventh  century. 

We  cannot  deny  that  among  the  wheat  much  chaff  has  been 
smuggled  in;  that  there  are  many  extravagant  and  far-fetched 
expositions  and  Agadoth;  that  there  are  obscure  and  seemingly 
superstitious  sayings  and  narratives;  but  we  must  say  with  Mai- 
monides:  "  Beware  that  thou  takest  not  literally  those  words  of 
the  Chaclnimim,  for  this  would  be  degrading  to  the  sacred  doc- 
trine, and  would  sometimes  contradict  it.  Seek  rather  the  hid- 
den sense;  and,  if  thou  cannot  find  the  kernel,  let  the  shell  alone, 
and  confess:  '  I  cannot  understand  this! ' " 


14  FORMS   OF   TALMUDICAL    POETRY. 


CHAPTER  II. 
FORMS  OF  TALMUDICAL  POETRY. 

The  Greek  and  Roman  classics,  surpassing  the  compositions  of 
other  nations,  preserved  by  their  finished  style  and  the  melodious 
flow  of  their  poetry,  will  remain  as  models  for  all  ages.  But  they 
are  at  the  same  time  rude  evidences  of  the  world's  childhood.  In 
them,  passion  has  not  yet  yielded  to  the  sway  of  reason,  ven- 
geance is  recognized  as  right,  and  all  the  vices  of  heathenism  ap- 
pear in  alluring  forms. 

How  much  superior  are  those  pure  moral  precepts,  those  heaven- 
born  truths,  which  filled  the  soul  of  God-inspired  sages! 

Their  compositions  yield  to  those  of  Greek  and  Roman  classics 
in  arrangement  of  ideas,  in  method,  in  beauty  of  form,  but  they 
are  superior  in  moral  truth,  as  they  have  for  their  centre  God 
and  His  revealed  Law.  Instead  of  the  gay,  joyous,  and  worldly 
spirit  of  the  Greeks,  an  elegiac  tone  prevails  through  the  whole 
literature  of  the  Talmud,  as  most  of  its  productions  were  com- 
posed in  times  of  oppression  and  suffering. 

In  fact,  very  few  efforts  appear  to  have  been  made  during- 
Talmudical  times  to  express  thought  in  the  beautiful  form  of 
poetry.  The  words  came  forth  as  a  natural  result  of  the  feelings; 
the  spirit  within  the  sage  urged  him  to  utterance  and  he  did  not 
first  ask,  "What  shall  I  utter?"  but  his  ideas  poured  forth,  like 
the  water  plunging  down  the  cataract,  without  any  visible  method, 
but  still  sublime  and  filled  with  grandeur. 

The  numerous  pages  of  the  two  Talmuds  are  filled  with  reflec- 
tions and  remarks,  mostly  springing  from  evcry-day  occurrences. 
They  are  strewn  about  like  the  wild  flowers  of  the  field.  We  very 
seldom  meet  with  anything  approaching  a  well-set  composition 
and  distinguished  for  its  poetical  forms. 

The  whole  Talmud  appears  like  a  series  of  almost  uninterrupted 


SOME    METRICAL    EXAMPLES.  15 

debates,  interchange  of  ideas,  flashes  of  thoughts,  where  the  most 
important  questions  of  the  time,  the  highest  concerns  of  life,  and 
the  most  insignificant  rites  are  discussed.  Everything,  whatever 
a  teacher  appeared  to  have  uttered  in  earnest  or  in  jest,  as  a  state- 
ment of  deep  thought  or  a  passing  witticism,  was  thought  import- 
ant enough  to  be  recorded.  It  was  preserved  for  later  times  to 
collect  the  strewn  flowers  into  bouquets,  to  arrange  the  scattered 
thoughts  into  poems  of  rare  excellence,  and  to  clothe  them  into 
poetical  garb  and  beauty.  Still  there  are  some  compositions  of 
intrinsic  value,  proverbs  and  sayings  showing  cadence  or  measure, 
assuming  a  metrical  form,  while  others  already  appear  in  rhyme. 

The  fragments  of  the  proverbs  of  Ben  Sira  in  the  two  Talmud s 
and  Midrash  give  some  examples  of  metric  forms,  and  some  with 
returns  of  corresponding  sounds.  It  distinctly  appears  that  Ben 
Sira  composed  after  the  model  of  Solomon's  Proverbs.  The  verses 
are  subdivided  commonly  into  couplets,  containing  an  equal 
number  of  syllables,  and  each  couplet  ends  with  the  same  word. 

Such  approaches  to  a  fixed  rhythmical  arrangement  and 
regular  rhyme  appear  in  numerous  Talmudical  aphorisms  and 
popular  proverbs.  The  fixed  formulas  for  prayer  in  the  two  Tal- 
muds,  the  ritual  prayers  of  the  Temple,  some  private  prayers  of 
prominent  teachers,  and  a  few  occasional  compositions  also  show 
a  certain  regularity  of  arrangement  in  their  words  and  syllables. 
But  they  cannot  be  classified  as  metrical  productions  or  as  dis- 
tinct poems. 

An  important  branch  of  Talmudical  literature,  of  poetical  value, 
forms  the  Targumim,  Chaldaic  paraphrases  of  the  Bible,  emanat- 
ing from  the  Talmud  and  Midrash.  They  either  keep  closely  to 
the  spirit  and  construction  of  the  original  text  (as  the  Targum 
Onkelos  on  the  Pentateuch  and  the  Targum  to  Job),  or  the 
words  of  the  Bible  are  the  golden  hooks  on  which  they  fastened 
the  variegated  curtains  of  legend,  interwoven  with  many-colored 
threads  of  Orientalism  and  Kabbinism.  In  the  first  case,  the 
peculiarities  of  the  Biblical  poetry  are  faithfully  preserved,  and 
only  slightly  tinged  with  an  Agadaic  coloring;  in  the  other, 
legends  abound,  and  the  style  of  the  interpretation  more  often  re- 


16  FORMS   OF   TALMUDICAL   POETRY.  . 

sembles  a  Midrash  than  a  paraphrase.  The  Targum  Jerushalmi 
and  the  Targumin  on  the  five  Megilloth  form  most  beautiful  and 
systematic  national  works  of  art,  through  which  the  golden  thread 
of  the  Scriptures  passes. 

Also  the  Midrashim  are  partly  poetical  works  of  art,  and  may 
be  called  Agadic  dramas,  Agadic  hymns,  and  Agadic  elegies;  their 
manner  of  exposition  is  poetical  in  form  and  contents.  The 
method  of  exposition  is  sometimes  analytical,  so  that  the  Biblical 
text  stands  as  the  introduction  to  the  Agadah,  at  other  times 
synthetical,  where  the  Biblical  text  closes  the  whole  as  the  com- 
pletement  of  the  statement  and  appears  as  its  confirmation.  Eclia 
Rabati  and  Shir  ha  Shirim  Rabati  are  great  exegetic  poetical 
compositions.  The  theories  and  rules  of  the  Occidental  poetry, 
however,  cannot  be  applied  to  these,  wherein  the  most  heteroge- 
neous elements  are  mingled.  The  Midrash  on  the  Song  of  Songs 
is  a  mystical-erotic  composition,  the  Midrash  on  Lamentations  a 
tragical  elegy,  Yelamdenu  a  didactical  hymn.  History  and  ex- 
position, old  tales  and  new  narratives,  lyrical  and  epic,  Biblical 
and  Talmudical,  Tanaim  and  Amoraim,  grave  and  ridiculous, 
Oriental  and  Occidental — all  are  blended  there  together  like  the 
colored  glasses  of  the  kaleidoscope.  Combine  with  this  the 
marble-like,  imposing,  fantastical,  mysterious  Chaldee,  which 
seems  to  be  expressly  formed  to  become  the  language  of  the 
thoughtful  Mashal,  the  extravagant  myth,  the  mystical  Kabala — 
and  you  have  a  picture  of  the  rhymeless,  unfettered,  Jewish- 
national  poetry  of  the  Targum  and  Midrash. 

The  language,  or  rather  the  languages,  in  which  the  composi- 
tions of  the  Talmud  and  Midrash  appear,  are  Hebrew,  Chaldee 
and  Talmudical. 

With  a  few  exceptions  in  Chaldee,  the  entire  literature  of 
Palestine  in  the  Soferite  age  was  Hebrew.  The  language  had 
undergone  serious  modifications.  Old  words  were  either  sup- 
planted by  new  words,  or  were  retained  with  new  shades  of  mean- 
ing; and  the  language  put  forth  its  vigor  in  the  development  of 
new  words  which  answered  to  the  wants  of  the  times. 

In  this  idiom  Joshua  Ben  Sina  wrote  his  Proverbs,  the  men  of 


THE   VARIOUS   IDIOMS.  17 

the  Great  Assembly  and  of  the  Sanhedrin  expressed  their  aphor- 
isms and  composed  the  liturgy  of  the  Temple  and  of  the  syna- 
gogue. The  Hebrew  remained  also  in  the  following  ages  the  lan- 
guage of  worship,  of  science,  and  of  literature. 

Among  the  masses,  Chaldee  intermixed  with  Hebrew  became 
prevalent,  so  that  in  Palestine  a  Palestine  dialect,  called  Sursi, 
and  in  Babylon  another  dialect,  less  mixed  than  the  first,  called 
A  ram  if,  were  spokem*  These  dialects  were  also  used  by  the 
learned,  at  the  side  of  the  Hebrew,  which,  continually  undergoing 
transition,  departed  more  and  more  from  its  original  form  in  the 
Scriptures,  and  appeared  as  a  sort  of  idiom,  the  Leshon  Chacha- 
mim,  or  "  dialect  of  the  sages,"  a  language  peculiar  to  the  Rab- 
binical schools,  and  the  voluminous  writings  which  have  issued 
from  them.  This  language  has  also  been  used  by  later  commen- 
tators. It  is  to  this  dialect  that  the  term  "Talmudical 
Hebrew,"  exclusive  of  the  other  post-biblical  literature,  is  to  be 
applied. 

But  also  the  phraseology  of  the  Scriptures  was  entwined  with 
the  common  conversation  of  the  Talmudical  sages,  and  the  words 
of  prophetic  inspiration  hovered  on  their  lips.  In  their  epistol- 
ary correspondence,  the  Biblical  element  largely  intermingled, 
both  in  imparting  a  tone  and  character  to  their  style  of  writing, 
and  in  furnishing  beautiful  and  appropriate  tokens  of  friendship. 

The  literature  of  the  Talmud,  therefore,  appears  in  three  idioms, 
Hebrew,  Chaldaic,  and  Talmudical.  During  the  time  of  the  Tal- 
mud, all  three  branches  were  flourishing,  the  Hebrew,  used  for 
ritual  purposes  and  peculiarly  developed  for  judicial  distinctions; 
the  comparatively  pure  Glialdaic,  and  the  mixture  of  these  two 


*  The  Palestine  idiom  is  distinguished  from  the  Bablyonian.  For  in- 
stance, Jer.  Sota  ix.  6  (compare  Abel  Rabati  viii.  2).  At  the  point  of 
death  Samuel  Hakatan  said,  "Simon  and  Ismael  are  destined  to 
destruction,  their  companions  to  death,  the  people  to  plunder,  and  great 
oppressions  are  approaching."  He  spoke  Aramaic  and  the  persons 
present  did  not  understand  him.  In  Baba  Kama  (3,  a)  Rabbi  asked. 
•Why  is  Syriac  spoken  in  Palestine  ?  "Why  do  the  people  not  rather 
speak  either  Hebrew  or  Greek?"  to  which  R.  Yose  rejoined,  "  Why  is 
the  Aramaic  the  vernacular  of  the  Jews  of  Babylon  ?  Why  do  they  not 
use  either  the  holy  language  or  Persian  V  " 
2 


18  FOEMS   OF   TALMUDICAL   POETRY. 

idioms  into  a  third,  which  has  many  peculiarities  of  its  own,  the 
Talmudical  language. 

None  of  these  idioms  appears  exclusively  for  any  kind  of  com- 
position. Halachah  and  Agadah,  Shir,  Mashal  and  Tenia  appear 
in  one  or  the  other  idiom.  None  appears  in  larger  passages  with- 
out an  intermixture  of  the  other,  they  stand  together  like  the 
leaves  on  one  stem.  The  Chaldee  in  the  mouth  of  the  common 
people  appears  intermingled  with  Hebrew  words  and  phrases, 
just  as  the  Hebrew  in  the  mouth  of  the  learned  has  Chaldaic  and 
other  foreign  ingredients. 


REVIVAL   AT   THE   TIME    OF    THE   SECOND   TEMPLE.  19 


CHAPTER  III. 
LITURGY. 

The  history  of  the  prayers  of  a  nation  is  equal  with  the  his- 
tory of  its  progress  in  culture  and  civilization. 

With  man's  first  consciousness  of  his  dependence  on  a  higher 
being,  he  raises  his  voice  to  the  invisible  Power,  who  rules  and 
governs  his  destiny. 

During  the  existence  of  the  First  Temple,  the  Israelite,  when- 
ever his  heart  prompted  him  to  communicate  with  God,  raised 
his  voice  and  laid  his  feelings  bare  before  the  throne  of  the  Most 
High.  Especially  would  he  choose  the  solemn  shrine  on  Mount 
Moriah  for  his  devotion.  The  temple  was  to  him  not  a  mere 
place  of  sacrifice,  but  a  "house  of  prayer,"  hence  we  find  specific 
forms  of  confession  already  in  the  Pentateuch,  as  used  in  the 
First  Temple.  Such  is  the  Vidui  or  confession  of  the  high- 
priest  (Lev.  xvi.  21),  and  the  formula  prescribed  at  the  obla- 
tion of  Beclwrotli  or  "first-fruits"  (Deut.  xxvi.)  From 
David's  time  downwards,  the  Holy  Scriptures  furnished  various 
forms  of  prayers  and  praise.  (See  examples  in  1  Kings  viii.  47; 
Daniel  ix.  4;  Nell.  ix.  5.) 

At  the  time  of  the  Second  Temple,  when  a  revival  in  religious 
feelings  took  place,  and  a  longing  arose  among  the  masses  dis- 
persed in  Babylon  to  come  into  closer  connection  with  their  God, 
fixed  formulas  for  daily  and  regular  prayers  were  introduced. 
Prayers  ceased  to  be  a  mere  matter  of  choice,  and  became  a  mat- 
ter of  duty,  and  in  the  temple  and  in  the  numerous  synagogues 
fixed  prayers  were  recited  in  the  morning  and  evening. 

The  liturgy  then  in  existence  we  may  range  under  the  distinct 
heads  Tefila,  "  the  prayer,"  Beracha,  "  the  benediction,"  and 
Shir,  "song  or  poetic  chant  of* praise." 


20  the  liturgy. 

1.  Prayer. 

The  4-boda  or  divine  service  of  the  Second  Temple  under  Ezra 
and  his  successors  became  more  copious  in  material  for  its 
liturgy.  At  the  feast  of  Tabernacles,  the  one  hundred  and 
eighteenth  psalm  was  sung,  accompanied  by  trumpets  and  cym- 
bals (Ezra  iii.  10,  11;  Neh.  xii.  21). 

The  titles  given  to  certain  psalms  in  the  Septuagint  indicate  a 
fixed  use  of  them  at  certain  periods  of  week-day  and  Sabbath 
worship.  (Compare  Mishna  Tamid  end  ;  Soferim  18.)  The  se- 
lection for  the  different  days  of  the  week,  commencing  with  Sun- 
day, were  Psalms  24,  48,  82,  94,  81,  93,  92.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  these  psalms  were  not  expressly  conrposed  for  that 
purpose,  but  were  taken  from  a  collection  then  existing. 

The  fifteen  "Songs  of  Degree"  also  were  evidently  liturgical, 
and  probably  derive  their  name  from  the  fifteen  semicircular 
steps  at  the  Nicanor  gate  of  the  great  court  of  the  temple  on 
which  the  Levites  stood,  while  singing  them. 

So  the  Mishna  (Succah  5,  4),  "  On  the  fifteen  steps  which  led 
into  the  women's  court  of  the  temple,  corresponding  with  the 
fifteen  songs  of  degrees,  stood  the  Levites  with  their  instruments 
of  music  and  song." 

The  psalms  11-3-118,  called  the  Great  Hallel,  were,  according  to 
the  Talmud  (Pessachimll1?),  recited  on  holidays  during  prophetic 
times,  and  the  Septuagint  distinguished  them  by  a  special  title. 

Special  verses  from  the  Psalms  are  reported  as  having  been 
used  as  fixed  formulas.  Eor  instance,  "  Save  now,  we  beseech 
thee,  0  Lord:  0  Lord,  we  beseech  thee,  send  now  prosperity" 
(cxviii.  25)  was  recited  by  the  priests  at  their  procession  with 
twigs  of  willows  around  the  altar  of  burning  sacrifices  on  the 
seven  days  of  the  Eeast  of  Weeks.  The  exclamation,  "  Awake, 
why  sleepest  thou,  0  Lord?"  (Ps.  xliv.  24)  was  daily  repeated 
by  the  Levites  in  times  of  distress  and  tribulations.*  (Yalkut 
Shimoni  to  the  verse.) 


*  John  Hyrcanus,  the  high-priest,  abolished  the  use  of  this  verse,  which 
was  introduced  during  the  sufferings  under  the  Syrian  reign. 


SCHECHARITH — TEFILLA.  21 

Besides  these  psalms,  newly  composed  prayers  were  recited, 
which  in  form  were  entirely  differing  from  those  poetical  produc- 
tions admitted  into  the  Canon. 

The  most  ancient  portions  of  these  prayers  may  be  arranged 
under  two  heads. 

They  are  found  in  1.  The  Sliecharitli  or  morning  prayers;  the 
portions  which  accompany  the  confession  of  the  Divine  Unity, 
called  Shema  (from  the  initial  words  Shema  Israel,  "Hear,  0 
Israel!"'  (Dent.  vi.  4-9;  xi.  13-21;  Num.  xv.  37-41).  The 
devotional  parts  connected  with  the  reading  of  these  Biblical 
paragraphs  are  three,  two  preceding  these  paragraphs,  celebrating 
the  worship  of  God  as  Creator  and  setting  forth  the  love  of  God 
for  Israel,  in  having  communicated  to  Israel  His  laws,  and  the 
third,  following  the  Shema,  an  adoration  of  God  as  Israel's  Be- 
deemer. 

2.  The  other  part  bears  the  usual  name  of  the  Tefilla  or  also 
Shemonah  Ezreli,  the  "Eighteen  Benedictions,"  though,  strictly 
speaking,  they  are  in  the  present  form  nineteen  benedictions. 

Of  these  nineteen  benedictions  the  first  three  and  the  last  three 
are  considered  to  be  the  most  ancient,  and  belong  rather  in  their 
entirety  to  the  class  of  Beracha,  benedictions,  while  the  included 
thirteen  contain  the  prayers  proper,  for  knowledge,  for  repent- 
ance, for  forgiveness,  etc.  Each  of  them  closes  with  a  Beracha, 
benediction. 

The  six  oldest  benedictions  are  undoubtedly  of  the  Soferite  age 
and  appear  also  designated  by  special  names  in  the  Mishna; 
A  hot,  Geburot,  Keduslia,  Aboda,  Hoda'a  and  BirJcat-Kohanim 
(Bosh  Hashana  iv.  5);  while  the  others  were  composed  in  the 
course  of  about  three  hundred  years. 

The  authors  of  these  prayers  used  the  greatest  care  in  word- 
ing them,*  and  in  a  very  simple,  popular,  and  impressive  lan- 

*  About  the  introduction  of  the  expressions  NTOm  "l13Jn  ^HJn  ^n 
into  the  first  benediction,  which  is  credited  to  the  men  of  the  Great  Syn- 
agogue, the  following  legend  appears  in  Talmud  Yoma  (56,  a):  "Moses 
used  the  expression  in  his  prayer  '  Great,  powerful,  and  tremendous 
God  ! '  Jeremiah  reasoned :  '  Foreign  nations  intruded  upon  His  sanc- 
tuary, where  is  His  tremendousness  ? '    and  in  his  prayer  omitted  the 


22  THE   LITURGY. 

guage  they  laid  clown  therein  the  principles  of  the  Jewish  religion. 
By  repeated  recitals,  every  Israelite  became  thoroughly  acquainted 
with  the  dogmas  of  his  creed,  and  received  thereby  a  clear  and 
pure  conception  of  his  Creator.  For  this  reason  all  anthropo- 
morphisms and  even  poetical  embellishments,  which  in  any  way 
could  be  misunderstood  by  the  common  people,  were  studiously 
avoided. 

The  form  of  these  ancient  prayers  differs  from  those  of  the 
Psalms  and  other  compositions,  admitted  into  the  Canon  and  sup- 
posed to  have  their  origin  in  Sbferite  times,  by  entirely  discard- 
ing parallelism,  that  dwelling  upon  one  favored  sentiment  in  a 
variety  of  ways,  as  if  loath  to  part  with  it,  but  expresses  the  idea 
in  the  most  clear  and  concise  form,  and  by  its  language  indicates 
the  transformation  of  the  Biblical  into  the  "more  popular  and 
dogmatical  Talmudical  Hebrew,  tinted  with  new  formed  words 
and  Aramaisms. 

The  oldest  part,  however,  preserved  some  indications  of  the 
former  or  contemporary  poetical  productions,  as  they  are  some- 
times musical  and  harmonious  in  sound,  and  have  an  assonance 
of  the  closing  words  of  the  sentences.  There  are  many  expres- 
sions of  the  most  sublime  parts  of  the  Biblical  Hebrew  used  in 


attribute  '  tremendous '  (Jeremiah  xxx.  18).  At  a  later  time  Daniel 
remarked:  'Other  nations  rule  over  his  people,  how  could  I  call  Him 
"powerful?"'  and  he  in  his  turn  omitted  the  attribute  'powerful* 
(Dan.  ix.  4).  The  men  of  the  Great  Synagogue,  however,  asserted: 
'  His  tremendousness  and  power  are  the  more  visible  now  !  He  keeps 
back  his  wrath,  and  is  long-suffering  with  the  wicked;  and  his  small, 
insignificant  nation  He  guards  and  preserves  in  the  midst  of  a  multitude 
of  nations,'  and,  therefore,  introduced  all  tbree  attributes  used  by  Moses 
into  the  prayers."  Also,  in  reference  to  the  use  of  these  three  attributes 
of  God,  the  following  narrative  appears  in  Talmud  Megillah  (28):  "A 
reader  in  a  synagogue  added  of  his  own  will  to  the  three  above  quoted 
attributes  of  God  three  similar  ones,  but  was  interrupted  by  E.  Chanina. 
who  said :  '  Canst  thou  express  by  words  the  greatness  of  God  ?  "We 
were  not  even  allowed  to  use  any  attribute  in  reference  to  God  if  the 
example  in  using  '  the  great,  powerful,  and  tremendous  God '  had  not 
been  set  by  Moses."  In  reference  to  the  first  three  and  last  three 
benedictions,  Maimonides  asserts:  "No  man  has  power  to  diminish 
from,  or  add  to  them,  or  subject  them  to  the  least  change "  (Hilchot 
Tefilla  1,  11). 


MODIFICATION   OF  THE   LITURGY.  23 

these  benedictions.*  Also  twice  in  the  Kedusha  and  Hoda'dh,  the 
musical  expression  Selali,  which  only  appears  in  the  highest  parts 
of  Biblical  lyrical  pieces,  has  been  admitted,  as  an  expression  of 
poetry.  Taken  as  a  whole,  these  ancient  prayers  are  highly 
poetical  in  their  simplicity  and  most  appropriate  as  expressions 
of  adoration  of  the  Most  High. 

From  the  time  of  the  second  restoration  of  the  Temple  ser- 
vice by  the  Maccabees  down  to  the  destruction  of  the  Temple,  the 
liturgy  was  somewhat  changed  and  enlarged.  The  appearance  of 
different  sects,  religious  divisions  among  the  people,  and  an  ani- 
mosity springing  up  between  different  parties,  caused  the  leaders 
to  transform  some  prayers,  which  seemed  to  be  misunderstood. 
The  daily  recital  of  the  Ten  Commandments,  until  then  in  com- 
mon use,  was  abolished,  in  order  that  no  heretic  might  assert 
that  the  Ten  Commandments  comprise  all  the  laws  given  by 
Moses  (Jer.  Berachot  c.  1).  For  the  same  reason  the  college 
of  Hillel  taught  against  the  college  of  Shamai,  that  the  She  ma 
should  not  be  recited  with  special  veneration  in  distinction  of 
other  prayers,  nor  that  the  Modim,  "We  adore  thee''  in  She- 
monah  Ezreli  should  be  repeated,  that  it  may  not  appear  as  if  the 
Jews  worship  two  deities. 

The  Shemonali  Ezreli  was  enlarged  by  prayers  for  the  prose- 
lytes, sages,  and  elders,  and  for  the  appearance  of  the  Messiah 
(Megillah  25). 

The  liturgy  experienced  again  a  new  revision  after  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  Temple,  in  order  that  the  prayers  recited  may  agree 
with  the  changed  circumstances  of  the  tknes.  We  are,  however, 
in  the  dark  as  to  how  far  these  changes  extended.  Further 
changes  and  additions  are  reported  from  that  time  to  the  close  of 
the  Talmud. 

Among  the  fragments  of  prayers  from  the  earliest,  the  Soferite 
age,  we  must  mention  the  exclamations  on  the  days  of  fasting, 
as  given  in  Mishna  Taanit  (2;  4,  5): 

*  For  instance,  \tfff\rh  m  (Is.  Ixiii.  2),  D^DIJ  "JOID  (Ps.  cxlv.  14).  mo 
D^DK  (Ps.  cxlvi.  7),  nay  ^jjm  (Dan.  xii.  2);  nyw  rr»SO  (Is.  xlv.  8). 


21  THE    LITURGY. 

' '  May  He  who  answered  Abraham  on  the  Mount  Moriah  answer  you, 
and  listen  graciously  this  day  to  your  cry.  May  He  who  answered  our 
fathers  at  the  Red  Sea  answer  you,  etc.  May  He  who  answered  Joshua 
at  Gilgal  answer  you,  etc.  May  He  who  answered  Samuel  at  Mizpah 
answer  you,  etc." 

Also  the  four  collects  offered  by  the  high-priest  on  the  day  of 
atonement  are  preserved  in  the  Jerusalem  Talmud,  in  the  Mishna, 
and  the  Midrash  Yelamdenu.  They  appear  in  the  prayer-books 
for  that  day,  wherein  the  temple  service,  as  it  existed  in  olden 
times,  is  poetically  described  for  the  devotion  of  the  present 
generation. 

From  later  Talmudical  times  we  possess  a  large  number  of  very 
impressive  prayers,  mostly  for  private  devotion,  and  composed  by 
individual  Rabbis,  of  which  we  give  a  few  examples  : 

1.  May  it  be  Thy  will,  0  Lord  our  God,  and  the  Clod  of  our 
fathers,  to  deliver  us  from  the  shameless,  and  from  shamelessness, 
from  evil  men,  and  from  evil  accident,  from  evil  inclination, 
from  evil  companion,  from  evil  neighbor,  and  from  Satan  the 
destroyer,*  from  hard  judgment,  and  from  a  hard  adversary, 
whether  he  be  a  son  of  the  covenant  or  not  a  son  of  the  covenant 
(Berachot  16,  b). 

2.  May  it  be  Thy  will,  0  Lord  our  God,  to  let  exist  among  us 
love,  brotherly  feeling,  peace,  and  good  companionship,  bless 
our  land  with  disciples,  that  we  may  prosper,  and  give  us  a  por- 
tion of  future  bliss  (Berachot  16,  a). 

*  The  name  Satan,  known  from  the  Bible,  has  in  the  Talmud  different 
meanings,  according  to  the  ages  when  the  sentences  were  uttered.  It  is 
used  for  his  inward  and  outward  appearance.  The  Satan  exists  in  the 
human  heart  and  outside  of  it.  The  Talmudists  express  both  appear- 
ances by  the  same  word.  They  understand  by  it  the  obscure  relation 
between  the  happy  man  and  some  exterior  circumstances,  which  even 
without  a  moment's  notice  changes  his  welfare  into  great  misfortune. 
They  also  take  it  for  the  evil  disposition  in  man,  which  expels  his  brutal 
nature.  It  is  farther  used  to  express  any  kind  of  danger,  J~iopD  pt?n 
njSDH  J1W2  "the  Satan  appears  as  accuser  in  time  of  danger "  (Jer. 
Sabbath  11),  i.  e.,  man  in  a  dangerous  position,  or  during  common  mis- 
fortunes, as  epidemics,  wars,  etc. ,  is  more  exposed  to  lose  his  life  or  health 
than  he  otherwise  would  be.  We  must  avoid  such  dangers,  and  not 
rely  upon  our  good  fortune  (Sabbath,  32,  a). 


FORMS   OF   BENEDICTION".  25 

3.  Lord  of  the  universe!  It  is  revealed  and  known  before  Thee 
that  our  will  is  to  do  Thy  will.  And  who  hinders?  The  leaven 
that  is  in  the  dough,  and  servitude  to  the  kingdoms.  May  it  be 
Thy  will  to  deliver  us  from  their  hand  (Berachot  17,  a). 

•4.  May  it  be  Thy  will,  0  Lord  our  God,  to  cause  me  to  cleave 
to  Thy  commandments.  And  bring  me  not  into  the  hands  of 
sin,  nor  into  the  hands  of  iniquity,  nor  into  the  hands  of  tempta- 
tion, nor  into  the  hands  of  disgrace.  And  bow  my  inclinations  * 
to  be  subservient  to  Thee.  And  remove  me  from  evil  man,  and 
from  evil  companion.  And  cause  me  to  cleave  to  the  good 
inclination  and  to  a  good  companion  in  Thy  world.  And  give 
me  over  this  day,  and  every  day,  to  grace,  and  to  favor,  and  to 
mercy,  in  Thine  eyes  and  in  the  eyes  of  all  that  behold  me  (Bera- 
chot 60,  b). 

5.  0  Lord  our  God!  Endow  us  graciously  with  knowledge  to 
learn  Thy  ways;  cause  our  heart  to  fear  Thee;  forgive  us,  that 
we  may  be  among  those  that  were  redeemed;  remove  from  us 
sorrow;  satisfy  us  with  Thy  goodness;  collect  our  exiles  from  the 
four  corners  of  the  earth;  judge  the  erring  in  accordance  with 
Thy  holy  will;  rejoice  the  just  by  the  rebuilding  of  Thy  city,  the 
erection  of  Thy  temple,  the  sprouting  forth  of  the  horn  of  bliss 
of  David,  Thy  servant,  and  by  the  restoration  of  the  light  of  the 
son  of  Isai,  Thy  anointed  f  (Berachot  29). 

2.  Benedictions. 

The  adoration  of  the  name  and  dominion  of  God  pervades  the 
whole  of  the  Jewish  liturgy.  Many  of  the  prayers  begin  and  end 
with  it.  In  fact  this  principle  was  asserted  mafn  m  pKt?  na-Q  $o 
mil  nr«  rvotal  D&rn  "Any  prayer  wherein  the  namea  and 
dominion  of  God  are  not  mentioned,  is  not  to  be  considered  a 
benediction." 


*  Inclination  -\^  is  generally  accompanied  by  2113  "good"  or  jnn 
••  evil."  The  jnn  "W  the  evil  inclinations  in  man  are  his  passions.  They 
are  also  sometimes  designated  by  Satan. 

f  This  prayer  was  composed  by  Samuel,  in  the  third  century,  as  a 
shortened  form  of  the  Shemonah  Ezreh. 


26  THE    LITURGY. 

The  oldest  application  of  this  form  of  prayer  was  made  at  the 
regular  service  in  the  Temple,  and  such  benedictions  are  pre- 
served in  the  Bible  at  the  close  of  the  several  books  of  the  Psalms 
xli.,  lxxii.,  lxxxix.  and  cvi.,  and  in  1  Chron.  xvi.  36. 

The  most  complete  of  these  benedictions  appears  attached  to 
Psalm  lxxii.,  and  runs  as  follows: 

"Blessed  be  the  Eternal,  God,  the  God  of  Israel,  who  alone  doth 
wondrous  things.  And  blessed  be  His  glorious  name  forever,  and 
let  the  whole  earth  be  filled  with  His  glory.     Amen  and  Amen." 

To  Psalm  cvi. : 

"  Blessed  be  the  Eternal,  God  of  Israel  from  everlasting  to  ever- 
lasting, and  let  all  the  people  say  Amen.     Praise  ye  the  Lord.'' 

To  Psalm  xli. : 

••  Blessed  be  the  Eternal,  God  of  Israel,  from  everlasting  to  ever- 
lasting.    Amen  and  Amen.*' 

To  Psalm  lxxxix. : 

"  Blessed  be  the  Eternal  for  evermore.     Amen  and  Amen." 

In  1  Chron.  xvi.  36,  the  following  doxology  is  used: 

"  Blessed  be  the  Eternal,  God  of  Israel,  forever  and  ever.  And 
all  the  people  said  Amen,  and  praised  be  the  Eternal." 

It  is  very  probable  that  at  the  religious  services  in  the  Temple, 
the  Levites  regularly  concluded  the  singing  of  the  Psalms  with 
one  of  these  quoted  doxologies,  to  which  the  people  then  responded 
by  repeating  the  last  verse,  or  by  "Amen,  Amen." 

When  the  priests  pronounced  the  blessings  in  the  Temple,  and 
whenever  the  high-priest,  at  the  service  of  the  day  of  Atonement, 
uttered  the  most  holy  name  of  God,  as  well  as  at  other  benedictions 
in  the  Temple,  according  to  tradition,  the  people  responded. 
"  Blessed  be  the  name  of  the  glory  of  His  kingdom  for  evermore  " 
(Jer.  Berachot,  end). 

It  is  distinctly  stated  in  the  Talmud  (Taanit  16,  b)  that  in  the 
Temple  the  people  responded  to  the  benedictions  of  the  priests 


SONGS   AND   HYMNS.  2? 

and  Levites  by  that  formula,  while  in  the  synagogues  they  only 
responded  by  "  Amen,"  or  "Amen  and  Amen." 

After  the  confession  of  the  unity  of  God,  "Hear,  0  Israel,  the 
Eternal  our  God,  the  Eternal  is  one  ! "  that  formula  was  also 
retained  in  the  synagogues,  but  very  likely  in  contradistinction 
to  the  custom  in  the  Temple,  or  in  order  not  to  interrupt  the 
connection  of  the  Biblical  passage,  it  was  ordered  that  it  be  recited 
with  subdued  voice  (Pesachim  56,  a). 

Of  the  Shernonah  Ezreh  the  first  three  and  the  last  three  bene- 
dictions belong  properly  to  the  class  of  Beracha,  while  the  other 
thirteen  prayers  all  close  with  a  Beracha,  benediction,  as  also 
many  other  prayers.  It  was  the  aim  of  the  composers  of  prayers 
that  supplication,  with  prayer  and  thanksgiving,  should  be  con- 
tinually impressed  upon  the  mind  of  the  people,  and  also  a  deep 
reverence  for  the  everlasting  name  and  the  everlasting  eye,  which 
to  the  exclusion  of  any  other  real  or  imaginary  power,  has  domin- 
ion over  all  our  affairs. 

The  sages,  therefore,  prescribed  benedictions  for  almost  all 
affairs  of  life,  and  increased  their  number  to  a  great  extent,  not 
only  for  every  natural  phenomenon  and  every  accident,  but  also 
at  sight  of  a  king,  of  a  wise  man  (even  of  a  Gentile),  of  a  person 
of  unusual  dimensions,  either  a  giant  or  dwarf,  and  for  many  other 
events  special  benedictions  were  composed. 

3.  Songs  and  Hymns. 

Shir,  "song"  or  "  chant,"  is  a  partly  metrical  composition 
designed  for  chanting;  it  consisted  of  words  recited  to  musical 
tones,  but  generally  without  a  definite  musical  measure. 

In  Talmudical  literature  different  fragments  of  such  composi- 
tions have  been  preserved,  in  nuptial  songs,  hymns  for  popular 
feasts,  dirges,  and  table  songs,  of  which  some  sound  almost 
epicurean. 

The  few  songs  preserved  from  the  Soferite  times  were  used  at 
festive  gatherings,  when,  in  time  of  peace  and  comparative  inde- 
pendence, the  people  assembled  around  the  Sanctuary,  and  ex- 
pressed their  feelings  in  exclamations  of  thanksgiving  and  joy. 


28  THE   LITUKGY. 

As  these  appear  in  connection  with  descriptions  of  snch  gather- 
ings, and  as  their  contents  and  form  thereby  become  intelligible, 
it  will  be  interesting  for  the  reader  to  become  acquainted  with 
the  character  of  the  feasts. 

No  season  of  the  year  was  more  appropriate  for  joyful  manifes- 
tations than  that  which  witnessed  the  Feast  of  Tabernacles,  the 
time  of  ingathering.  This  feast  was  already  distinguished,  accord- 
ing to  Biblical  commands,  by  extraordinary  sacrifices,  offerings, 
and  ceremonies,  both  public  and  private.  In  accordance  with 
the  laws  laid  down  in  the  Pentateuch,  the  people  from  all  parts 
of  the  country,  imbued  with  the  best  social  and  benevolent  feel- 
ings, and  impressed  with  the  idea  of  their  common  origin,  faith, 
and  worship,  mingled  together  in  Jerusalem,  and  strengthened 
the  union  of  religious  and  secular  sympathies. 

With  the  restoration  of  the  Second  Temple  the  celebration  of 
the  Feast  of  Tabernacles  was  enlarged  by  new  ceremonies,  namely: 
a.  A  solemn  drawing  of  water  for  the  morning  service  at  the 
altar  of  sacrifices,  h.  Festooning  the  altar  with  willows,  and  c. 
Illuminations  and  torch-dances. 

a.  Drawing  of  Water  for  the  Altar. 

Early  in  the  morning  of  the  first  day  of  the  festival,  before  the 
morning  service,  a  priest,  carrying  a  golden  jug,  went  down  to 
the  brook  Siloah  (which  ran  through  the  city  west  of  the  Temple), 
to  fetch  water. 

He  was  accompanied  by  a  large  crowd  of  people,  and  returning 
from  the  south  side  through  the  water-gate  into  the  interior  court, 
lie  joined  the  other  priests  in  offering  the  morning  sacrifice.  His 
arrival  was  the  signal  for  the  blowing  of  the  trumpet,  and  amid 
music  and  singing,  the  water  together  with  the  wine  offering  was 
poured  into  a  special  opening  of  the  altar.  This  ceremony  was 
repeated  every  morning  during  the  seven  days  of  the  festival 
(Succah,  48,  49). 

1).  Festooning  the  Altar. 
From  Motsdh  (Kalmia),  in  the  neighborhood  of  Jerusalem,  the 
priests  brought  willows  to  the  Temple  every  morning  during  the 


CEREMONIES    AT    FESTIVALS.  29 

continuance  of  the  festival.  These  willows  were  then  arranged 
around  the  altar,  amid  the  blowing  of  trumpets  and  after  the 
regular  prescribed  ceremonies,  a  procession  of  priests  was  formed 
around  the  altar,  and  the  following  verses  were  recited  : 

' '  O  Lord  !  save  us  now.  we  beseech  Thee  : 
O  Lord  !  send  us  now  prosperity,  we  beseech  Thee  ! " 

According  to  a  tradition,  R.  Judah  cited  the  song  thus  : 

N3  njp{j>in  wni  ^n 

"  I  Am  and  God,  save  us  now,  we  beseech  Thee."* 
On  leaving  the  Temple  the  people  exclaimed  : 
rcto  ~p  'sv  ,n:»o  "\h  w 

"  Hail  to  thee,  O  altar,  hail  to  thee,  O  altar  ! " 

c.  Illuminating  and  Torch-Dances. 

On  the  eve  of  the  second  day  of  the  festival,  men,  women,  and 
children  thronged  the  exterior  court  of  the  Temple  in  expectation 
of  the  great  spectacle. 

On  high  posts  large  golden  chandeliers  were  placed,  each  with 
four  branches.  Young  priests  lustily  climbed  upon  the  ladders 
to  fill  the  hanging  lamps  with  oil,  and  light  them.  The  lamps 
spread  their  rays  over  the  whole  city,  and  there  was  no  place  in 
Jerusalem  from  which  the  illumination  could  not  be  seen.  In  the 
courts  of  the  Temple  the  most  prominent  and  learned  men  intoned 
hymns  and  psalms,  while  at  the  same  time  they  bore  lighted 
torches  in  their  hands.  Many  performed  the  most  fantastic 
motions  with  these  torches  to  the  enjoyment  of  the  assembled 
people.  Even  the  great  teacher  Hillel  is  reported  to  have 
balanced  torches  on  his  two  thumbs. 

Upon  the  fifteen  steps  which  led  from  the  exterior  court  into 
the  interior,  the  Levites  were  posted,  singing  Psalms  120-134, 
accompanied  by  all  kinds  of  musical  instruments.  In  this  way, 
amid  singing  and  music,  the  night  was  spent. 

*  Taking  >3K  "I  Ain"  and  xin  "He  is"  as  attributes  of  God  (see 
Tosephath  Yomtob  to  Succah  4,  5). 


30  THE    LITURGY. 

When  the  morning  sky  became  so  bright  that  Hebron,  lying  in 
the  mountains  to  the  southeast  of  Jerusalem,  could  be  seen  (which 
fact  was  reported  by  the  watch  on  the  pinnacle  of  the  Temple), 
two  priests  appeared  on  the  upper  gate  of  the  interior  court  and 
proclaimed  the  approach  of  day  to  the  assembled  people  by  blow- 
ing the  trumpets.  On  marching  down  they  sounded  the  trumpet 
once  more  at  the  tenth,  and  again  at  the  last  step.  Then  amid 
music  the  whole  possession  moved  to  the  eastern  gate,  where  they 
turned  toward  the  sanctuary  and  sang  : 

"  Our  fathers,  here  established  by  Thy  grace, 
Had  turned  their  backs  upon  Thy  holy  place, 
But  we  will  turn  to  Thee,  Eternal  God, 
Our  eyes  are  set  on  Thee,  Eternal  God  ! "   (Succah  5.) 

From  the  hymns  which  were  sung  by  the  people  on  that  occa- 
sion, the  Talmud  (Succah  53,  a)  has  preserved  the  following- 
fragments  : 

The  pious  and  renoivned  men : 

O  happy  youth,  devoted  sage, 
Who  will  not  put  to  shame  our  age. 

The  penitents : 

O  happy,  also,  is  our  age, 

"Which  now  atones  for  youth,  not  sage. 

Chorus : 

O  happy  he,  on  whom  no  guilt  doth  rest, 

And  he  who  sinn'd,  with  pardon  shall  be  blest ! 

The  Rabbis  made  great  efforts  to  contribute  to  the  national 
rejoicings  by  participating  in  them,  and  composing  songs  for  the 
occasion.  We  possess  several  of  them.  One,  as  sung  by  Hillel, 
runs  as  follows: 

"  If  '  I  Am'  is  here,  all  is  here, 
If  '  I  Am '  is  not  here,  who  is  here  ?    • 
Whatsoever  place  I  take  pleasure  in, 
Thither  my  feet  lead  me. 
For  thus  said  the  Lord  : 
If  thou  wilt  come  to  My  house, 
I  will  come  to  thy  house  ; 


THE    FEAST   OF   TORCH-LIGHTS.  31 

In  all  places,  where  I  allow  My  name  to  be  mentioned, 

I  will  come  unto  thee,  and  I  will  bless  thee."*    (Suceah  53.) 

When  Hillel  noticed  that  the  people  became  too  boisterous  in 
their  rejoicing,  he  thus  reminded  them  of  the  sanctity  of  the  spot : 

' '  Who  is  present  while  we  are  here  ? 
Hath  He  any  need  of  our  praises, 
He  who  is  adored  by  myriads  ?  " 

But  when  he  preceived  that  they  conducted  themselves  decor- 
ously, he  said  : 

' '  Who  is  present  while  we  are  absent  ? 
God  loveth  our  praise  more  than  that  of  angels." 

(Jer.  Suceah  5,  9-12.) 

This  feast  was  called  "rejoicing  of  the  feast  of  torch-lights,*'  f 
mxiB»n  rV3  nno^  of  which  it  is  stated,  "He  who  did  not  witness 
the  rejoicing  of  the  feast  of  torch-lights,  does  not  know  a  genuine 
rejoicing"  (Suceah  51). 

From  the  Soferite  times  we  also  possess  an  account  of  public 
gatherings  of  a  joyous  character  on  the  fifteenth  of  Ab  (August), 
and  on  the  Day  of  Atonement,  of  which  Ave  speak  under  "Wed- 
ding and  Wedding-feasts." 

During  Talmudical  times  there  were  composed  various  songs 
which  we  shall  bring  up  under  "Wedding  and  Wedding-feasts," 
"Funeral  Dirges,"  and  "Miscellaneous." 

4.  Mashal. 

The  Mashal,  originally  simile  or  parable,  hence  proverb,  com- 
prises the  smaller  ethical  productions  of  Talmudical  literature. 

*  We  give  the  above  translation  in  accordance  with  the  exposition  of 
Rashi,  who  takes  *3tf  as  one  of  the  designations  of  God,  an  expression 
used  by  Hillel  for  the  divine  name.  Or  we  may  take  the  sentence  as  an 
apostrophe  of  God  to  Israel,  and  then  it  would  be  "  If  I  am  here,  all  is 
here,  etc."  Another  commentator  takes  \jn  as  referring  to  Israel,  and  pan 
as  a  designation  of  God,  "  the  all  comprising  being,"  and  then  the  trans- 
lation would  be,  "  If  I  (Israel)  am  here,  also  the  All  comprising  Being  is 
here."    The  version  in  the  text  seems  to  us  the  most  probable. 

f  According  to  Geiger's  ingenious  explanation  of  n3KB>  as  flames  of 
torches. 


O/J 


2  THE    LITURGY. 


In  the  Biblical  writings  the  word  was  applied  to  prophecy,  to 
doctrine,  to  history  in  the  most  impassioned  and  lofty  style,  to 
sayings  of  the  wise,  to  popular  proverbs,  and  to  instruction  given 
in  a  kind  of  poetic  form,  sometimes  with  the  accompaniment  of 
the  harp  or  other  instruments;  in  these  various  kinds  of  instruc- 
tions, material  subjects  are  introduced  in  the  way  of  parallel  or 
comparison,  to  illustrate  those  which  are  spiritual  or  above  the 
natural  powers  of  conception. 

While  on  the  restoration  of  the  Jewish  state,  the  "  Tefilla," 
Prayer,  and  the  "Shir,"  Hymn,  were  cultivated  and  enlarged  in 
connection  with  and  for  the  service  of  the  Temple  and  syna- 
gogues, the  Mashed  found  its  place  of  real  cultivation  in  the 
different  colleges  and  schools,  founded  by  Ezra  and  his  followers, 
the  Soferim,  and  it  grew  there  as  well  as  in  the  colleges  of  the 
succeeding  generations  to  one  of  the  most  interesting  and 
instructive  branches  of  literature,  comprising  wise  remarks  of 
the  highest  importance,  short  precepts  of  the  purest  morality, 
fables,  parables,  allegories,  and  riddles. 

The  Maslial,  in  its  original  form,  consists  of  two  elements:  the 
thesis,  principal  fact  or  lesson,  and  the  type,  emblem,  or  allusion 
by  which  it  is  explained  or  enforced.  The  latter  may  be  one  of 
the  phenomena  of  nature,  or  an  imaginary  transaction  in  common 
life  (parable);  or  an  imaginary  group  of  personified  agents 
(apologue,  allegory);  or  a  composition  wherein  the  moral  or 
practical  idea  is  represented  by  agents  not  human,  but  acting  and 
speaking  like  human  beings  (fable).  Sometimes  the  Maslial 
takes  a  mathematical  cast,  and  the  doctrines  or  principles  arc 
laid  down  after  a  certain  arithmetical  proportion  or  canon  (at  a 
later  period  designated  by  the  name  of  Mid  da).  When  the 
image  or  allusion  of  these  kinds  is  wanting,  the  Mashal  sometimes 
becomes  a  deep,  recondite,  yet  generally  entertaining  assertion 
or  problem,  and  bears  the  name  Chida,  "riddle,"  or  "enigma," 
often  even  merging  into  the  axiom,  or  oracle  of  practical  wisdom, 
Massa,  a  "burden,"  a  weighty  saying.  When  conveyed  in  a 
brilliant,  sparkling  style  of  speaking,  it  becomes  Melitsa,  an 
entertaining   witticism  or  a  pungent  reproof.     The   remaining 


MASIIAL.  33 

form  of  the MasJialis  the  motto  (apophthegm),  where  some  moral 
counsel  is  sententiously  expressed  without  the  parallelism,  as  we 
see  in  the  mottoes  of  the  Hebrew  sages  in  the  book  Abot. 

The  Meshalim  of  Ben  Sira  (Proverbs  of  Joshua  Son  of  Sirach, 
Ecclesiastic  us)  form  the  only  systematical  book  of  proverbs 
dating  from  Soferite  times.  The  Pirke  Abot  or  "Ethics  of  the 
Fathers"  arc  sayings  preserved  from  that  period;  not,  however, 
in  the  systematical  order  observed  in  the  Book  of  Ben  Sira,  but 
rather  following  a  chronological  order.  The  treatises  of  the 
Talmud,  devote  dchiefly  to  proverbs,  as  also  to  those  spread  over 
the  leaves  of  that  work,  do  not  reveal  any  strict  system. 

Most  of  these  proverbs  and  aphorisms  are  brief  observations  on 
matters  essential  to  human  happiness,  very  often  blended  with 
metaphor,  comparison,  and  other  poetical  attributes.  Sometimes 
the  author  of  such  a  Mashal  employs  sounds  or  words  in  such  a 
manner  that,  by  applying  words  of  similar  sound,  he  gives  a  cer- 
tain beaut}-  to  the  aphorism  and  impresses  it  the  better  upon  the 
memory. 

The  following  may  serve  as  examples. 

When  Hillel  saw  a  skull  floating  upon  the  water,  he  said: — 

1.  D22KT  bv    Thou  art  drowned, 

"|1QON    Because  thou  hast  drowned, 
ya'DD  ?|D1     Those  that  drowned  thee, 
:  patV     Will  be  drowned  in  turn.* 

2.  rp$>  JVN  N"l3n  "|~Qn     "  Thy  friend  has  a  friend. 
:  rpjj  JVX  N12n  "pam  N"Om     That  friend  in  his  turn 

(Ketubot  110.)  Again  a  good  friend." 

3.  :  MB>  {JO  pm  po  N"DX     A  physician  healing  for  nothing, 
(Baba  Kama  85.)  Produces  a  cure  good  for  nothing. 

Also  words  of  different  significations,  but  very  similar  sounds 
are  used  in  such  aphorisms. 


*  He  who  has  suffered  violence,  must  have  been  a  wrong  doer;   and 
they  that  have  done  the  man  violence  will  themselves  come  to  an 
untimely  death. 
3 


34  THE    LITURGY. 

• 

4.  -ib>n  rVB  "pan     If  thou  art  told,  thy  friend  has  died  ; 
:  I^NJl  X^>  1KWX  "pan     Believe  it : 

(Gittin  30,  b.)  Thy  friend  has  become  rich  ; 

Believe  it  not ! 

5.  :-|^>  pitt^l  pn^  plan    Associate  with  the  prominent. 

And  people  will  bow  to  thee. 

6.  133  mxn  D,-I3T  ntJ^EQ    By  three  things  people  are  found  out, 

:  1DV331  'D'33  1D133     By  the  cup,  by  the  pocket  and  in  anger. 

7.  XET'D  X^>  XTQD  ""N     Where  the  book  is,  no  sword  is  wanted, 

:  XTDdS  XQ^D  ""Xl     Where  the  sword  is,  the  book  is  super- 
(Abod  Sara  18.)  fluous.* 

8.  rra  no  ma  an  x^n  ira  &6ia  rva  kyi 

:yp  no  yp  xi>  xn  -idpi  no  »jp  xn 

"In  whom  this  is,  there  is  all :  in  whom  this  is  not,  what  is  there? 
Has  one  gotten  this,  what  lacks  he  ?  has  he  not  gotten  this,  what  has  he 
gotten?"  This  aphorism  refers  to  knowledge,  or  more  properly  to  the 
knowledge  of  the  Torah,  and  appears  in  connection  with  another  aphor- 
ism, "There  is  none  poor  but  in  knowledge."    (Nedarim  41,  a.) 

A  peculiar  figure  of  speech  is  to  be  found  in  a  string  of  sub- 
jects with  corresponding  predicates,  either  as  a  simple  addition 
or  in  arithmetical  progression.  As  an  example  of  the  first,  we 
have  the  following  saying  of  Hillel: 

More  flesh,  more  worms ;  more  treasures,  more  care  ;  more  maid-ser- 
vants, more  lewdness ;  more  men-servants,  more  theft ;  more  women, 
more  witchcrafts  ;  more  Torah,  more  life  ;  more  wisdom,  more  scholars  ; 
more  righteousness,  more  peace.     (Abot  ii.  8.) 

As  an  example  of  the  second  class: 

"Ten  hard  things  were  created  in  the  world.  Rock  is  hard,  but  iron 
cuts  it ;  fire  fuses  iron  ;  water  quenches  fire  ;  clouds  bear  water  ;  wind 


*  An  honest  man  has  nothing  to  fear.  The  book  represents  the  laws, 
the  sword,  punishment.  The  above  aphorism  is  illustrated  by  a  parable. 
"R.  Elieser  taught,  The  book  and  the  sword,  bound  together,  were 
handed  down  from  heaven.  '  If  you,'  God  said, '  will  live  up  to  the  contents 
of  the  book,  you  may  dispense  with  the  sword,  otherwise  the  sword  will 
rule.'"  (Vayikra  R.  71.) 


HISTORY   IN   THE   APOCRVPHAL    WHITINGS.  35 

scatters  clouds  ;  the  body  bears  the  wind  ;  fear  shatters  the  body  ;  wine 
dispels  fear;  sleep  dissipates  wine;  and  death  is  harder  than  all  of  them, 
but  righteousness  delivers  from  death  (Prov.   x.  2  ;  Baba  Bathra  10,  a).* 

5.  History. 

From  the  commencement  of  the  Second  Jewish  State  to  the 
close  of  Talmudical  times,  no  historical  work,  except  those  ad- 
mitted into  the  Canon,  were  preserved  in  Hebrew,  although  it 
appears  that  several  histories  of  current  events  and  fictitious 
historical  compositions  were  extant. 

Among  the  apocryphal  writings  incorporated  into  the  Septua- 
gint,  the  Greek  book  of  'Ezra,  the  Book  of  Maccabees,  the  Book 
of  Judith,  and  additions  to  the  Book  of  Esther  contain  historical 
accounts.  The  first  Book  of  the  Maccabees  and  the  Book  of 
Judith  were  originally  composed  in  Hebrew,  as  their  peculiar 
Greek  proves.  St.  Jerome  states  that  he  has  seen  the  first  book 
of  the  Maccabees  in  Hebrew.  The  Book  of  Judith  as  well  as  the 
additions  to  the  Book  of  Esther  are  entirely  fictitious  and  of  no 
historical  value. 

In  the  Talmud  and  Midrash  many  historical  notices  are  scat- 
tered, which  were  used  to  great  advantage  by  modern  Jewish 
historians,  such  as  Bapoport,  Jost,  Graetz,  and  others,  to  correct 
the  misrepresentations  and  omissions  of  the  Jewish  historian 
Flavins  Josephus  and  to  illustrate  many  obscure  passages  in  the 
Clmstian  Bible. 

The  first  book  of  the  Maccabees  (end)  speaks  of  a  chronicle  of 
the  reign  of  Hyrcanus,  and  Josephus  (Antiq.  xv.  6,  3)  states 
that  he  gave  the  account  about  the  history  of  Hyrcanus  in  accord- 
ance with  chronicles  of  King  Herod,  with  which  other  historians, 
however,  do  not  agree. 

From  these  works  only  a  small  fragment  is  yet  preserved  in  the 
Talmud  (Kiddushin  6G,  a),  which  is  the  more  interesting  as  it 
appears  in  comparatively  pure  Hebrew,  and  is  the  only  lengthy 
extract  from  a  lost  historical  work.     It  was  as  follows: 

*The  above  appears  in  a  somewhat  different  form  in  Koheleth  R. 
77  and  Yalkut  Jes.  345. 


36  HISTOKY   IN   THE   APOCRYPHAL   WRITINGS. 

"King  John  (Hyrcanus)  had  gone  to  Knchlith  in  the  wilder- 
ness and  conquered  sixty  cities.  On  his  return  there  was  great 
rejoicing,  and  the  king  invited  the  sages  of  Israel  to  a  feast.  At 
the  entertainment  he  said,  '  Our  fathers  have  eaten  the  herbs  of 
the  desert  (during  their  poverty),  while  they  built  the  Second 
Temple,  we  shall  also  eat  them  in  memory  of  our  ancestors.' 
Herbs  of  the  desert  were  served  in  golden  dishes.  There  was 
among  those  present  a  wicked  man,  his  name  Eleasar  ben  Puera. 
Now,  Eleasar  ben  Puera  said  to  the  king,  '  0  King  John !  the 
Pharisees  are  secretly  against  thee;  try  them  by  clothing  thyself 
with  the  priestly  head-ornament.'  The  king  followed  that  ad- 
vice, whereupon  an  old  man,  Judah  ben  Gerida,  arose  and  said, 
'  0  King  John,  be  satisfied  with  the  kingly  crown,  and  leave  the 
crown  of  priesthood  to  other  descendants  of  Aaron '  (for  it  was 
reported  that  his  mother  was  a  prisoner  of  war  in  Modoth). 
After  an  investigation  the  report  was  found  false,  but  the  king- 
dismissed  the  sages  in  great  anger.  Eleasar  ben  Puera  said  to 
the  king,  '  0  King  John,  thy  case  as  king  and  high-priest  has 
not  been  treated  in  any  different  way  than  that  of  any  one  of  the 
common  people.'  'What  shall  I  do?'  the  king  rejoined.  'If 
thou  art  inclined  to  follow  my  advice,  have  them  killed!'  The 
king  followed  the  advice  of  that  Eleasar  and  killed  the  sages  of 
Israel.  The  world  appeared  devastated  until  Simon  ben  Shetach 
restored  the  law  again  as  of  yore." 

This  fragment  is  the  more  remarkable  as  it  still  preserved 
many  peculiarities  of  the  ancient  Hebrew  style,  not  to  be  found 
in  any  composition  of  a  later  period.  As,  for  instance,  the  Vav 
conversive  is  still  applied,  while  it  entirely  disappeared  in  other 
parts  of  the  Mishna  and  Talmudical  literature,  and  several  ex- 
pressions of  the  ancient  forms  of  style  are  there  applied. 


THE    KEYSTONE   OF    GENUINE    MORALITY.  37 


CHAPTER  IV. 
WEDDINGS  AND  WEDDING-FEASTS. 

Married  life  was  considered  the  keystone  of  genuine  morality, 
the  cheerful  alliance  of  two  kindred  souls  who  voluntarily  com- 
bine to  reciprocal  rights  and  duties;  and,  therefore,  the  marriage 
ceremonies  were  celebrated  amid  customs  rendered  holy  by  the 
sense  of  sanctity,  and  at  the  same  time  with  the  greatest  joy  and 
merriment.  From  numerous  passages  in  the  Talmud  upon  the 
exalted  significance  of  marriage,  we  quote  the  following  from 
MoedKaton  (18,  b): 

"  Behold,  how  sublime  the  sanctity  of  marriage!  In  the  Pen- 
tateuch, in  the  Prophets,  and  in  the  Haggiographs  it  is  extolled 
as  a  divine  institution.  In  the  Pentateuch,  Laban  and  Bethuel 
replied,  'This  thing  proceeds  from  the  Eternal  '  (Gen.  xxiv.  50); 
concerning  Samson  we  read,  '  His  father  and  mother  knew  not 
that  the  thing  had  been  brought  about  by  the  Eternal  (Judges 
xiv.  4) ;  and  in  Proverbs,  '  House  and  riches  are  inheritance  from 
ancestors,  but  a  thoughtful  wife  is  God's  own  gift  '  (Prov.  xix. 
14)."  We  also  find  the  great  significance  of  the  marriage  cere- 
mony expressed  by  its  very  name  KiddusMn,  "  sanctification," 
and  of  marriage  Hilloola  or  "song  of  exultant  praise." 

Betrothal  preceded  marriage,  which  was  either  brought  about 
by  courtship,  or,  in  some  cases,  by  the  mediation  of  third  parties. 
Public  dances  on  certain  days  of  the  year  afforded  Jewish  maid- 
ens an  opportunity  of  being  freely  sought,  and,  in  due  measure, 
of  freely  giving  themselves  in  marriage.  Twice  in  the  year,  on 
the  fifteenth  day  of  Ab*  and  on  the  day  of  Atonement,  the  Jew- 


*  The  fifteenth  day  of  Ab  (August)  was  a  feast  instituted  by  the  Phari- 
sees as  a  denionstation  against  the  Sadducees,  who  would  not  recognize 


38  WEDDINGS    AND    WEDDING-FEASTS. 

ish  maidens,  all  clad  alike  in  white  garments  that  the  law  com- 
pelled them  to  borrow  from  one  another  (so  that  in  dress  no  dis- 
tinction should  be  seen  between  rich  and  poor,  thus  removing  a 
possible  cause  of  envy)  went  out  in  groups  to  the  vineyards,  for- 
mally invited  young  men  to  dance  with  them,  and  stated  their 
different  claims  to  matrimony  in  songs,  of  which  some  were 
preserved  in  Mishna  Taanit  (iv.  8). 

' '  Around  in  circle  gay  the  Hebrew  maidens  see  ! 
From  them  the  happy  youths  their  partners  choose; 
Remember  beauty  soon  its  charms  must  lose, 
And  seek  to  win  a  maid  of  fair  degree. " 

"When  fading  grace  and  beauty  low  are  laid, 
Yet  her  who  fears  the  Lord  shall  praise  await; 
God  blessed  her  handiwork,  and  in  the  gate 
Her  works  have  followed  her,  it  shall  be  said."' 

On  the  wedding  day,  the  bride  was  carried  through  the  city  in 
full  dress  upon  a  handsome  palanquin,  which  was  borne  on  the 
shoulders  of  men  of  the  highest  social  position  (Tosephta  Sota 
c.  15,  Sota  49,  a,  compare  12,  a);  and  it  was  considered  a  religious 
duty  to  join  the  procession  and  to  contribute  to  its  gaiety.  Even 
the  study  of  the  law  was  interrupted  and  the  disciples  encour- 
aged to  add  their  numbers  to  a  bridal  cortege  and  to  join  in  the 
songs. 

A  beautiful  marriage  song  we  possess  in  the  45th  Psalm;  whilst 
the  Talmud  preserved  only  a  small  fragment  of  such  an  ode  in 
the  following  lines: 

' '  Away  with  all  thy  purchased  aids  of  beauty, 
She  needs  them  not,  our  sweet,  gazelle-eyed  gii-1 !  " 

In  connection  with  this  fragment,  it  is  related  that  the  dis- 
ciples of  Hillel  lavished  praise  upon  the  bride,  justly  remarking 
that  she  certainly  is  beautiful  to  the  eyes  of  her  betrothed,  if  not 


sacrifices  of  wood  for  the  altar,  which  the  Pharisees  considered  praise- 
worthy offerings.  On  that  day,  people  would  bring  wood  for  the  use  of 
the  altar,  while  young  people  celebrated  the  day  by  dancing  and  singing. 


MARRIAGE    FESTIVITIES.  39 

to  the  general  public,  while  the  more  rigid  Shamaites  objected  to 
that  practice. 

At  the  wedding,  dancing  and  music  were  indulged  in,  and  all 
kinds  of  instruments,  flutes,  harps,  zithers,  castagnets  were 
played  and  occasionally  varied  by  cheerful  singing.  It  seems, 
however,  that  at  such  festivals  the  young  people  were  too  much 
inclined  to  overstep  the  bounds  of  modesty,  and  with  genuine 
Oriental  lire  indulged  in  too  boisterous  merriment.  Then  the 
more  grave  men  would  interrupt  them  with  serious  reflections. 
Only  in  such  a  way  can#we  explain  the  song  given  by  E.  Hamnuna. 
the  Little,  who  was  once  pressed  to  sing  at  a  marriage  banquet. 
He  broke  out  with  a  strain:  pn^m  p  "ni  "Woe  to  us,  we  must 
die,  Avoe  to  us,  we  must  die."* 

The  company  responded  in  chorus  "Bless  the  truth,  bless  the 
law,  our  guard  and  protection!  "  (Berachot  31,  a). 

When  B.  Judah  Hanassi  celebrated  the  marriage  of  his  son 
Simon,  he  invited  all  learned  men,  but  left  out  the  witt}7  Bar 
Kappora,  disliking  and  fearing  his  sarcastic  tongue.  Offended 
by  this  slight,  Bar  Kapjoora  avenged  himself  by  writing  on  the 
wall  of  the  house  where  the  wedding  took  place,  "240,000 
denars  are  to  be  spent  on  this  feast,  and  Bar  Kappora  is  not  in- 
vited! If  such  luxury  falls  to  the  lot  of  sinners,  what  blessings 
will  be  bestowed  upon  the  pious!  "  (Nedarim  50,  b).  The  con- 
sequence of  this  was,  that  he  had  an  invitation  sent  and  then  he 
changed  the  last  sentence,  "If  the  pious  have  the  enjoyments  of 
such  splendors  in  this  life,  what  glories  must  be  reserved  for 
them  in  future  life."  According  to  another  account  the  inscrip- 
tion ran,  "Death  follows  thy  joy,  what  are  thy  joys  worth?" 
After  B.  Judah  had  found  out  who  the  writer  was,  he  arranged 


*  In  Herodotus  it  is  related:  "Among  other  songs  in  Egypt,  they  had  a 
song,  the  Linos  of  Phoenicia,  Cyprus,  and  other  places;  and  although  it 
had  different  names  with  different  nations,  it  is  the  same  song  sung  by 
the  Hellenes  under  the  name  of  Linos."  Koehler  made  the  remark: 
"The  Linos  was  originally  a  Phoenician  song  of  complaint  about  the 
shortness  of  human  life,  and  the  name  of  Linos  is  from  the  refrain  Ai 
Lana  (woe  to  us  !).  The  above  song  may  be  an  Aramaic  translation  of 
that  song. 


40  WEDDINGS   AND   WEDDING-FEASTS. 

another  feast  the  following  day  in  honor  of  Bar  Kappora.  Hardly 
were  the  meats  served,  when  Bar  Kappora  commenced  to  relate 
fables  and  stories,  and  the  guests  became  so  interested  in  his  en- 
chanting words  that  they  paid  no  attention  to  the  rich  dishes 
which  were  brought  back  to  the  kitchen,  untouched.  When  the 
host  complained,  Bar  Kappora  said:  "  I  did  it  because  of  your 
neglecting  to  invite  my  colleagues  and  myself;  and  to  satisfy  you 
that  I  did  not  come  for  your  delicacies."     (Leviticus  R.  c.  28.) 


1 


MORTUARY    CEREMOXIES.  41 


CHAPTER  V. 
1.  FUNERAL  ORATIONS  AND   ELEGIES. 

Burial  processions,  as  well  as  every  act  connected  with  the 
funeral,  were  objects  of  careful  attention,  as  the  Jews  considered 
it  a  religious  duty  to  give  the  last  honors  to  the  dead,  even 
though  they  were  strangers.  Pains  were  taken  to  have  as  many 
persons  as  possible  to  join  in  the  procession.  Everybody  who  met 
it  on  its  way  to  the  cemetery  was  religiously  obliged  to  accompany 
it,  at  least  for  some  distance  (Berach.  18,  a);  and  even  the  study 
of  the  law  was  to  be  interrupted  for  that  purpose. 

The  procession  consisted  of  relatives,  friends,  and  strangers  ; 
the  women  generally  went  before  the  hearse,  and  the  men  behind 
it.  They  were  accompanied  by  torch-bearers  and  by  the  music 
of  drums  and  flutes,  and  also  by  dirges  of  hired  mourners  skilled 
in  their  art.  Besides  these  songs  of  grief,  which  consisted  of 
solemn  appeals  to  those  present  to  express  their  sympathy,  and 
besides  lyrical  panegyrics  of  the  deceased,  funeral  orations  were 
delivered  at  the  grave. 

These  funeral  orations  formed  an  essential  part  of  the  last  hon- 
ors bestowed  upon  the  deceased,  and  the  omission  of  such  ora- 
tions, especially  in  honor  of  a  learned,  pious,  or  prominent  man, 
was  considered  a  great  sin. 

Specimens  of  these  compositions,  such  as  were  delivered  at  the 
funeral,  and  such  as  were  held  at  special  memorial  services,  or 
on  other  occasions,  are  preserved  in  the  Talmud  and  Midrash. 

Some  appear  as  short  sentences,  simple  utterances  of  grief, 
others  are  given  to  some  extent;  while  some  are  joined  to  a  Bib- 
lical passage,  others  are  illustrated  by  a  simile. 

These  orations  have  for  their  themes:  1.  Reflections  on  human 
life,   the  causes  of  death,   about  untimely  and  sudden   death, 


42  FUNERAL   ORATIONS   AND   ELEGIES. 

the  loss  to  mankind  by  the  demise  of  the  sage,  etc.  2. 
Eemarks  about  special  circumstances  connected  with  the 
deceased,  in  reference  to  his  qualities,  experiences  in  life,  merits, 
etc. 

I.  The  Cause  of  Death. 

E.  Lakish  began  the  funeral  discourse  over  R.  Chiya  ben-Adda, 
son  of  Bar  Kappora's  sister,  and  one  of  his  disciples,  with  a  pas- 
sage from  the  Song  of  Songs  (vi.  2)  and  the  following  homily  : 

' '  My  lover  into  his  garden  descends, 
To  the  bed  of  spices  his  path  he  bends; 
Within  the  garden  he  wanders  along, 
And  plucks  the  roses,  fragrant  and  strong." 

The  lover  is  the  Lord,  Almighty  God— 

The  garden  where  th'  Eternal  goes  abroad, 

That  is  the  large,  wide  world,  hence  to  the  sky 

Great  Israel  sends  its  perfume  up  on  high, 

Like  some  small  bed  of  aromatic  flowers, 

Fenced  round  by  peace,  most  glorious  in  its  powers; 

Israel,  where  firmly-founded  piety 

And  learning  nourish  in  luxuriancy; 

And  these  bring  forth  their  leaves  so  vast  and  rife 

That  they  are  shelters  from  the  heat  of  life. 

It  is  this  bed  which  the  Almighty  chooses, 

And  whence  he  plucks  the  garden  queens,  the  roses; 

These  are  the  great  disciples  of  the  law, 

Who  from  belief  their  chief  enjoyment  draw. 

(Jer.  Berachot  ii.  8;  Shir  Hash.  R.,  6,  3.) 

II.  Untimely  and  Sudden  Death. 

E.  Chanina  died  on  the  day  when  his  first  child  was  born, 
after  he  had  hoped  for  a  long  time  for  an  offspring,  and  the  ora- 
tor at  Chanina's  grave  uttered  over  him: 

How  fallible  all  earthy  plans  and  hopes  ! 
How  vainly  man  for  bliss  in  darkness  gropes  ! 
The  Voice,  that  could  command  the  world  and  light, 
May,  with  a  breath,  his  petty  pleasures  blight! 


UNTIMELY    AND   SUDDEN    DEATH.  43 

A  sentence — and  bright  joy  was  changed  to  pain, 
"Where  bliss  had  entered,  grief  was  doomed  to  reign — 
For,  in  the  moment  of  his  hope  fulfilled, 
The  joyful  beating  of  that  heart  was  stilled  ! 

A  bridegroom  died  suddenly  on  the  day  of  his  nuptials.  He 
had  left  the  assembled  company,  and  when  his  father,  observing 
his  absence,  was  looking  for  him,  he  found  him  a  corpse.  The 
father  returned  to  the  hall,  and  addressed  the  company  :  "  Dear 
friends,  you  appear  to  a  festive  occasion,  but  the  house  has  been 
turned  to  a  house  of  mourning.  You  will  not  lead  my  son  into 
the  bridal  chamber,  but  you  will  give  him  the  last  honors."  R. 
Sakka,  of  Chabalon,  gave  expression  to  the  feelings  of  the  com- 
pany. He  quoted  the  words  of  Koheleth  (Eccl.  ii.  2)  :  "I  say 
to  laughter,  it  is  mad  ;  and  of  mirth,  what  benefits  it  ?  "  (Midr. 
Koheleth  ii.  2). 

R.  Isaac  ben  Elasar  short  and  impressively  said  at  the  funeral 
of  R.  Yochanan  :  "This  day  is  as  momentous  to  Israel  as  the 
day  of  which  the  prophet  spoke,  that  the  Eternal  God  will  cause 
the  sun  to  go  down  at  noon  "  (Moed  Katon  25,  a). 

A  longer  funeral  oration  was  uttered  by  R.  Seira  over  the 
earthly  remains  of  R.  Abin  bar  Chia,  who  died  at  the  age  of 
twenty-eight  years  : 

"  The  sleep  of  a  laboring  man  is  sweet,  whether  he  eat  little  or  much." 
—(Eccl.  v.  11). 

In  applying  this  passage  to  the  deceased,  he  related  the  para- 
ble :  "A  king  had  ordered  several  workmen  to  perform  for  him 
a  certain  work.  Among  them  was  one  surpassing  all  in  artistic 
accomplishments  and  quickness.  The  king,  noticing  his  merits, 
paid  him  special  attention,  and  delighted  in  conversing  with 
him  while  the  others  were'  at  work.  When  the  workmen  received 
their  wages,  they  noticed  that  they  all  were  paid  equal  shares. 
They  objected  that  the  man  who  was  only  engaged  during  two 
hours  a  day  should  have  equal  payment  with  those  who  worked 
the  whole  day.  But  the  king  rejoined  :  '  He  has  accomplished 
more  in  two  hours  than  you  during  a  whole  day.'     The  same 


44  FUNERAL   ORATIONS   AND   ELEGIES. 

is  the  case  with  our  lamented  friend  Abin.  He  has  accomplished 
in  his  twenty-eighth  year  what  others  hardly  achieve  in  a  hun- 
dred years  "  ( Jer.  Berachot  ii.  8). 

III.  Reflections  upon  the  Signification  of  Death. 

At  the  grave  of  Samuel  Hakaton,  who  died  childless,  R.  Gama- 
liel, the  elder,  thus  spoke  :  "  Here  is  one  for  whom  we  ought 
indeed  to  shed  tears,  and  for  whom  we  may  grieve.  Kings  trans- 
mit their  crowns  to  their  successors,  the  wealthy  leave  their 
treasures  to  their  children,  but  Samuel  has  gone  to  his  last  home, 
and  taken  with  him  all  his  glorious  possessions  "  (Semachot  c.  8). 

At  the  funeral  of  R.  Abin  a,  Bar  Kipup*  said  : 

' '  How  can  the  lowly  hyssop  still  survive, 
When  with  devouring  flames  the  cedars  strive  ? 
Should  Leviathan  be  the  angler's  prey, 
What  have  the  fishes  of  the  pond  to  say  ? 
If  in  deep  torrents  drop  the  fisher's  hook, 
How  fares  it  with  the  waters  of  the  brook  ?  " 

IV.  The  Irreparable  Loss  to  Mankind. 

"When  R.  Simon  ben  Zebid  went  to  his  last  home,  R.  Levi 
lamented  : 

"  Earthly  possessions,  when  they  are  taken  from  us,  maybe 
replaced;  for  there  is  a  vein  for  the  silver,  a  stratum  whence  the 
gold  is  brought  to  the  light,  iron  is  taken  out  of  the  earth,  and 
the  metals  of  bronze  obtained  from  their  stones  (Job  xxviii.  1,  2). 
But  when  a  wise  man  is  torn  away  from  the  world,  what  shall 
balance  his  loss  !  For  where  is  wisdom  to  be  found,  and  where 
is  the  place  of  understanding  ?  Verily  they  disclose  themselves 
not  to  the  eye  of  living  men.  The  brothers  of  Joseph  were 
startled  when  they  unexpectedly  found  valuables ;  how  much 
more  must  we  be  stricken  with  terror  when  we  lose  an  inestima. 

• , 

*  The  two  persons  named  as  professional  orators  at  funerals,  Bar  Kipup 
and  Bar  Abua — such  seem  the  more  correct  reading  in  preference  to  Bar 
Kipok  and  Bar  Abin  (Comp.  Yebamot  103,  a) — have,  according  to  an 
ingenious  remark  of  Rapoport,  names  appropriate  to  their  profession, 
namely:  Bar  Kipup,  "  owl-man; "  and  Bar  Abua,  "conjurer  of  the  dead." 


COMMISERATION    OF   THE    PEOPLE.  45 

ble  treasure  in  one  who  departs  from  us  in  death  ?  "  ( Jer.  Ber. 
ii.,  Bereshit  R.  c,  15). 

V.   Commiseration  of  the  People. 

When  a  son  of  R.  Akiba  died,  an  enormous  crowd  flocked  to 
the  funeral  ;  R.  Akiba  ascended  the  rostrum,  and  addressed  the 
people  : 

"  Brothers  in  Israel,  listen  to  my  words  !  It  is  not  because  of 
any  merit  or  station  of  mine  that  ye  appeared  here  ;  for  assur- 
edly there  are  my  superiors  in  this  city.  Oh,  your  reward  will  be 
great;  ye  have  done  homage  to  the  law  !  Your  presence  would 
suffice  to  console  me,  even  if  I  had  buried  seven  children, 
although  the  grief  would  be  great.  But  it  is  a  consolation  that 
my  son  has  become  a  child  of  future  bliss,  since  his  death  has 
caused  a  multitude  to  perform  such  an  act  of  piety." 

At  the  funeral  of  R.  Abina,  Bar  Abua,  a  professional  orator, 
pronounced  the  following  eulogy  : 

"Spend  not  the  sighs,  which  tender  Pity  pays, 
On  him,  whom  Death  relieves  from  life's  dark  maze  ; 
Tis  but  the  mourners  need  the  tear  of  love, 
The  holy  calm  of  comfort  from  above. 
The  dead  has  reached  the  bright  and  silent  shore, 
Where  pain  and  sorrow  waste  the  soul  no  more." 

VI.  Special  References. 

In  Talmud  Moed  Katon  (25,  a),  the  story  is  related  when 
Rabba  bar  Huna  and  R.  Hamnuna  had  died  in  Babylon,  their 
bodies  were  brought  on  camels  to  Palestine.  Arrived  at  a  narrow 
bridge,  where  the  two  camels  could  not  pass  at  once,  both  remained 
standing.  An  Ishmaelitish  merchant  present,  surprised  at  the 
interruption  of  the  journey,  asked  for  the  reason,  and  was  told 
that  each  of  the  deceased  wishes  to  give  the  other  the  preference 
of  the  way.*     "  If  I  were  allowed  to  give  my  view  of  the  matter," 

*  The  dead  person,  it  was  fancied  as  a  popular  belief,  is  in  a  sort  of 
half-sleep  until  the  coffin-lid  is  nailed  down  over  him,  or  until  mortifica- 
tion sets  in. 


40  FUNERAL   ORATIONS   AND    ELEGIES. 

the  Arab  said,  "I  should  decide  in  favor  of  Rabba  bar  Huna,  as 
he  was  known  to  me  as  a  venerable  man. "  The  Arab  had  hardly 
concluded  his  remarks,  when  the  camel  bearing  Eabba  passed  the 
bridge.     At  the  funeral  of  Rabba,  one  of  his  disciples  declaimed: 

' '  A  learned  scion  of  an  ancient  race, 
Upward  to  sacred  Palestina  draws  ; 
And  bears  unto  illimitable  space 
The  code  of  Battles,*  the  great  Book  of  Laws. 
The  cormorant  and  hedgehog  nightly  gloat 
Upon  destruction  spreading  far  and  wide  ; 
For  God  His  wrath  upon  the  earth  has  hurled, 
And  from  our  midst  recalls  our  pious  learned. 
Th'  Omnipotent  delights,  when  from  the  sinful  world 
An  innocent  bright  soul  has  Home  returned." 

At  the  funeral  of  R.  Abina,  the  following  eulogy  was  also 
pronounced  : 

"  Bend,  ye  majestic  palms,  in  grief  sincere, 
O'er  one  who,  like  a  palm,  had  flourished  here  !  \ 
Nor  cease  your  mourning  when  the  moon's  soft  ray, 
Change  to  shadowy  night  the  brilliant  day; 
For  noon's  broad  glare  had  oft  to  midnight  waned,     V* 
Ere  slumber  o'er  his  studious  eyelids  reigned." 

At  the  funeral  of  R.  Seira,  born  in  Babylon,  but  who  became 
one  of  the  most  prominent  sages  in  Palestine,  a  poet  intoned  the 
following  elegy  : 

' '  In  Babylon  this  noble  sage  was  born  ; 
In  Palestine  he  was  adorned  and  cherished. 
'  Woe  unto  me,'  doth  Reketh:):  sadly  mourn, 
For  my  most  precious  jewel  now  has  perished." 

*"  The  Code  of  Battles  "of  the  text  has  been  differently  explained. 
Some  take  it  as  expressing  "the great  Book  of  Laws,"  i.  e.,  the  deceased 
observed  all  the  laws  of  the  Torali  very  strictly.  Others  suppose 
that  the  author  wished  to  express  that  the  Rabbi  struggled  against 
the  passions,  and  became  victor.  "The  cormorant  and  hedge-hog 
nightly  gloat,"  is  similar  to  Isaiah  (xxxiv.  11). 

f  "  One  tolio,  like  a  palm,  had  flourished  here"  is  formed  in  accordance 
with  Psalms  (xcii.  14)  :    "  The  righteous  shall  flourish  like  a  palm-tree." 

1  Reketh  is,  according  to  the  Talmud,  the  later  Tiberias.  Some,  how- 
ever, identify  it  with  Sepphoris. 


SHESHACH    AND   REKETH.  47 

When  the  death  of  the  patriarch  R.  Judah  was  approaching, 
many  people  from  the  neighboring  cities  had  assembled  at  Sep- 
phoris,  to  show  their  sympathy  for  him.  As  if  his  death  were 
utterly  impossible,  the  assembled  crowds  threatened  to  kill  any- 
one who  should  announce  the  mornfnl  fact.  The  suspense  and 
excitement  were  so  great  that  really  a  violent  outburst  of  grief 
by  the  agitated  multitude  was  feared.  But  Bar  Kappora,  the 
celebrated  poet  and  orator,  thus  addressed  the  people  : 

"  Mortals  and  angels  long  had  striven, 
The  tables  of  the  covenant  to  gain  ; 
Our  champions,  to  defeat  now  driven, 
Weep  for  the  treasures  that  no  more  remain."* 

Besides  the  funeral  orations  and  elegies,  a  few  formulas  are 
preserved  which  were  used  on  special  occasions,  especially  at 
funerals  of  persons  whose  bodies  were  carried  from  Babylon  to 
Palestine.  Of  these  formulas  we  possess  two.  The  first  runs  as 
follows  : 

"He  was  great  in  Sheshach,f  and  renowned  in  Reketh." 

The  second  formula  was  a  request  to  the  people  of  Tiberias  to 
participate  in  the  procession. 

"  Ye  friends  of  the  pious,  denizens  of  Reketh, 
Come  to  receive  the  corpse  from  the  plain." 

At  the  house  of  the  mourners,  professional  orators  used  to 
express  their  sympathy  in  poetical  effusions,  or  to  compose  pray- 

*  We  give  in  the  appendix  two  Hebrew  versions,  one  from  the  Baby- 
lonian, the  other  from  the  Jerusalem  Talmud. 

f  The  word  Sheshach  appears  in  Jeremiah  (xxv.  26),  and  the  Targuni 
translates  this  name  by  Babylon,  a  translation  accepted  by  Rashi  and 
Kimchi.  The  reason  or  origin  of  that  term,  whether  such  was  a  real 
name  of  Babylon  or  merely  an  attribute,-  we  do  not  know.  The  Talmud 
explains  this  name  as  originated  by  an  interchange  of  the  letters  of  the 
alphabet,  where  the  last  letters  of  the  alphabet  are  taken  backwards  in 
the  place  of  the  letters  in  regular  order,  in  such  a  manner  that,  instead 
of  Aleph,  Tav ;  instead  of  Beth,  Shin;  instead  of  Gimmel,  Resh  are 
taken,  etc.  The  Talmudists  called  this  kind  of  interchange  Atbash,  and 
very  probably  used  it  originally  as  a  kind  of  secret  writing.  At  a  later 
time  such  interchanges  were  attempted  for  expounding  Biblical  passages; 
these,  however,  can  only  be  considered  as  displays  of  wit. 


48  FUNERAL   ORATIONS   AND   ELEGIES. 

ers  for  the  occasiou.  It  is  related  that  during  a  visit  of  such  an 
orator,  he  was  requested  to  say  something  in  praise  of  God,  and 
he  commenced  the  following  address  : 

' '  O  God,  who  art  great  in  thy  greatness  ! 
Mighty  and  powerful  in  thy  magnitude  ! 
Who  revivest  the  dead  by  Thy  word. 
Thou  causest  inexpressible  wonders, 
Miracles  without  number  ; 
Blest  art  Thou,  O  Lord,  who  revivest  the  dead." 

He  was  then  requested  to  say  something  in  reference  to  the 
mourners,  and  he  said  : 

' '  Brethren,  crushed  and  overwhelmed  by  grief  ! 
Turn  your  mind  one  thing  to  understand  : 
From  the  world's  beginning  to  the  end  of  days  it  stands  ; 
Many  have  tasted  it — many  will  yet  taste  it. 
Like  the  lot  of  the  former,  will  be  the  lot  of  ours  ; 
May  the  Great  Consoler  comfort  you." 

In  response  to  the  request  to  say  something  about  the  visitors 
present,  he  declaimed  : 

"Beneficent  brethren  of  a  beneficent  stock, 
Who  imitate  the  deeds  of  our  patriarch  Abraham, 
May  the  Great  Requiter  reward  you  !  " 

2.  STANZAS  BY  WOMEN. 

Besides  the  funeral  orations  and  funeral  songs  which  were 
delivered  either  by  scholars  or  by  professional  orators,  the  Tal- 
mud has  also  preserved  a  few  aphorisms  or  stanzas  which  were 
applied  by  women  of  Shechanzib  at  interments.  The  people  of 
Shechanzib  were  rather  notorious  for  their  jesting  ways,  but  the 
women  referred  to  in  the  Talmud  were  wailers  by  profession,  em- 
ployed at  funerals  to  lament  over  the  deceased — a  custom  already 
existing  in  prophetic  times. 

These  stanzas,  seven  in  number,  are  reported  by  Raba,  a  great 
authority  in  the  Talmud,  and  therefore  deserve  attention.  They 
appear,  however,  to  represent  the  peculiar  dialect  of  the  locality 
of  Shechanzib,  and  hence  some  of  them  are  almost  unintelligible 


STANZAS   BY    WOMEN.  49 

at  this  distant  time,  and  offer  a  wide  field  for  suggestions  and  ex- 
planations. 

In  connection  with  the  statement  of  the  Mishna  (Moed  Katon 
3,  8)  that  female  professional  wailers  were  employed  at  funerals, 
the  Talmud  states,  in  the  name  of  Rab,  that  these  exclaimed  as  a 
general  formula: 

1.  N*?3I"6  Ml  vhft/h  "IT     "  Woe  to  him  who  went  away, 

Woe  to  those  who  are  left  behind.'** 

Eaba,  however,  states  that  these  wailers  did  not  always  use 
the  same  exclamations,  but  changed  them  for  others,  appropriate 
to  the  former  life  of  the  deceased.  While  generally  they  used  the 
above  formula,  they  would  on  some  occasions  utter: 

2.  N33D  ND1J  -m 

This  stanza  is  one  of  the  most  obscure,  and  called  forth  differ- 
ent attempts  to  explain  it,  none  of  which  are  satisfactory.  Rev. 
H.  Gersoni  suggests,  "The  pitcher  has  strayed  away  from  the 
tent,  and  we  must  take  water  in  the  bowl;"  the  natural  support 
of  the  house  having  died,  the  household  must  help  itself  as  best 
it  can.  He  reads  X3D  "tent,"  -pj  "pitcher."  Another  transla- 
tion, "Cat  the  tooth  from  the  bone,  and  let  the  water  run  into 
the  bowl." 

:  mir  no^bh  nn  -a1* 

"  The  grave  is  like  a  Melotian  (silken)  raiment  for  the  pious 
man,  who  comes  fully  provided  with  provision;"  the  pious  man 
can  look  upon  the  future  life  without  fear,  because  he  comes  to 
the  other  world  well  prepared.     Mr.  Ehrlich  translates,  "Asil- 


*  This  conception  would  give  the  most  appropriate  sense,  and  was  sug- 
gested by  my  friend,  Mr.  A.  B.  Ehrlich.  It  is  known  that  Lamed  and 
Resh  sometimes  interchange  (compare  English  colonel,  pronounced  cor- 
nel), and  it  seems  probable  that  X"l3n  "  society*'  became  in  the  mouth  of 
these  wailers  N^on.  Translations  of  N^3n  as  "  pledge'*  or  "  burden,"  the 
dead  body  as  a  burden  to  the  hearse,  are  far-fetched  and  very  unsatisfac- 
torv. 

4 


50  FUNERAL   ORATIONS   AND   ELEGIES. 

ken  raiment  is  the  grave  to  the  free  man,  whose  means  of  living 
were  exhausted."  It  would  then  refer  to  a  person  who  lived  for- 
merly in  wealth,  but  had  been  reduced  to  poverty  and  to  whom 
death  was  welcome. 

4.  pita  1D21  fpv 

:  Nin  pbn  -iai  paian  nan 

"  Overspread  and  cover  yourselves  (with  darkness),  ye  moun- 
tains, for  he  was  the  descendant  of  great  men."  This  calls  for  a 
general  mourning,  in  which  even  nature  shall  participate,  for  the 
loss  of  a  great  man. 

5.  nan  fcunx 
:  ppiao  ynw 

"  Our  brethren,  the  merchants  are  searched  at  the  toll-gate." 
i.  e.,  the  grave.  Another  translation:  "  Our  brethren,  the  mer- 
chants; their  deeds  are  investigated  at  the  funeral  service;  "  tak- 
ing "X2l  f°r  funeral  service. 

6.  siay»K  ^qji    \ti 

"He  ran  and  fell,  and  now  at  the  ferry,  he  must  borrow  the 
passage-money."  He  experienced  difficulties  all  his  lifetime,  and 
at  last  he  had  to  be  provided  by  others  with  a  shroud.  This  must 
not  necessarily  refer  to  a  poor  man,  as  the  shroud,  which  is  given 
to  the  dead,  was  considered  a  loan  made  by  the  living,  never  to  be 
returned.     The  ferry  is  used  here  for  the  grave. 

7.  Nnina  Nnin 
:  K^iTn  njnoi 

"His  death  was  like  the  death  of  others;  his  sufferings  were  a 
heavy  burden."  This  was  uttered  at  a  funeral  of  a  man  avIio 
died  after  a  lingering  illness. 


VALEDICTORIES.  51 


CHAPTER  VI. 
VALEDICTORIES. 

The  separation  from  friends,  -dear  to  our  heart,  carries  always 
with  it  feelings  of  sadness  and  depression.  How  much  more 
affecting  must  have  been  the  parting  scenes  in  Talmudical  times, 
when  travelling  was  accompanied  by  many  dangers,  and  life 
was  insecure  under  the  arbitrary  government  of  the  Romans  and 
Persians. 

The  valedictories  preserved  in  the  Talmud,  some  of  which  are 
of  high  poetical  value,  do  not,  however,  reveal  any  such  sombre 
feelings.  On  the  contrary,  they  are  generally  words  of  encour- 
agement, tinted  with  moral  and  religious  lessons,  which,  as  the 
last  words  before  parting,  were  the  more  impressive  upon  the 
mind. 

It  was  even  asserted  as  a  principle  that  the  parting  words  be- 
tween learned  friends  should  always  turn  upon  some  religious 
theme  (Berachot  31). 

Taking  leave  from  a  host,  after  having  enjoyed  his  hospitali- 
ties, was  generally  accompanied  by  a  blessing,  mostly  in  very 
simple  words,  sometimes  enigmatical. 

Two  scholars,  on  a  visit  to  their  teacher,  Simon  ben  Yochai, 
were  requested  at  their  departure  to  bless  the  son  of  the  Rabbi. 
They  used  the  following  enigmatical  expressions: — 

' '  May  God  grant,  that  thou  so  west  and  never  reapest, 

Bring  in  and  never  carry  out, 

Bring  out  never  to  return, 

That  thy  house  may  be  disturbed, 

And  thou  livest  therein  as  a  guest, 

Thy  meals  be  disturbed 

And  thy  life  never  renewed  !  " 


52  VALEDICTORIES. 

The  solution  to  these  words  we  bring  under  "Riddles  in  the 
Talmud." 

In  a  more  simple,  but  also  enigmatical  form,  Rab  clothed  his 
blessing  of  the  son  of  R.  Simon  ben  Chalephta,  when  he  took 
leave  from  his  host.  He  said  "  Mayest  thou  not  put  to  shame, 
and  be  put  to  shame  !"  The  father  explained  this  to  his  son, 
"  Such  is  the  blessing  God  bestowed  upon  Israel,  and  my  people 
shall  never  be  ashamed"  (Joel  ii.  26;  Moed  Katon  9,  b). 

A  beautiful  parable  R.  Isaac  applied  in  taking  leave  from  his 
earned  friend  R.  Nachman. 

"A  traveller,  once  journeying  through  a  desert,  when  weary, 
hungry  and  thirsty,  was  rejoiced  by  the  sight  of  an  oasis.  He 
found  there  a  wide-branched,  fruitful  tree,  at  the  foot  of  which 
gushed  a  spring  of  clear,  cool  water.  The  traveller  ate  of  the 
fruit,  enjoyed  and  rested  in  the  grateful  shade,  and  quenched  his 
thirst  with  the  sparkling  water  of  the  spring.  Parting  from  this 
beautiful  place,  which  had  offered  him  revival  of  his  exhausted 
strength,  he  addressed  the  tree,  '  0  gracious  tree,  how  shall  I 
express  my  gratitude  and  how  can  I  bless  thee  ?  I  cannot  wish 
thee  good  fruit,  for  it  is  already  thine,  and  the  benignant  shade 
thrown  by  thy  beauteous  branches  God  has  already  granted  thee, 
for  my  benefit  and  the  benefit  of  those  who  travel  by  this  way. 
Let  me  then  pray  to  God,  that  thy  offspring  may,  like  thee,  be 
blessed  by  the  Eternal.'  So  it  is  with  thee,  my  friend.  How 
shall  I  bless  thee  ?  Thou  art  perfect  in  the  law,  eminent  in  sta- 
tion, respected,  and  blessed  with  wealth.  May  God  grant  that 
all  thy  offspring  may  be  blessed  like  thee  ! " 

The  sessions  of  the  college  were  generally  closed  with  a  few 
words  of  admonition,  sometimes  with  verses  of  the  Bible. 

When  Titus  Aurelius  Antoninus,  surnamed  Pius,  repealed  the 
Hadrian  decrees  prohibiting  the  exercise  of  Jewish  rites,  seven 
disciples  of  R.  Akiba,  the  only  remaining  custodians  of  the 
intellectual  inheritance  of  the  past,  who  had  mostly  emigrated 
to  Babylon,  returned  to  Palestine.  They  assembled  in  Oosha, 
•the  home  of  R.  Judah,  and  called  upon  all  the  teachers  of  Galilee 
to  attend.     Very  many  obeyed  the  call,  and  the  inhabitants  of 


REPEAL   OF   THE    HADRIAN    DECREES.  53 

Oosha  endeavored  to  provide  for  their  guests  in  the  most  cordial 
manner.  After  having  sat  in  Oosha  some  time,  the  leaders 
adjourned  the  assembly  with  solemn  addresses.* 

E.  Judah  thanked  those  from  abroad  for  the  trouble  they  had 
taken,  in  travelling  a  distance  of  many  miles  in  order  to  take 
part  in  the  deliberations.  He  opened  his  address,  "Moses  took 
his  tent  and  pitched  it  without  the  camp  "  (Ex.  xxxiii.  7),  and 
concluded,  "When  the  Israelites,  who  had  only  to  go  a  short 
distance  of  three  miles  to  pay  a  visit  to  Moses,  were  honored  for 
such  insignificant  trouble  with  the  title,  'all  those  who  sought 
the  Lord,'  how  much  more  honor  do  these  sages  deserve  who, 
under  the  greatest  difficulties  and  perils,  go  from  land  to  land  in 
order  to  study  the  law." 

The  other  members  of  the  executive  council  thanked  the 
inhabitants  of  Oosha  for  the  hospitality  shown  to  the  guests.  K. 
Nehemiah  selected  the  text,  "'And  Saul  said  to  the  Kenites,  Go 
depart,  get  you  down  from  among  the  Amalekites,  lest  I  destroy 
you  with  them:  for  ye  show  kindness  to  the  children  of  Israel, 
when  they  came  up  out  of  Egypt"  (1  Sam.  xv.  6);  and  con- 
cluded, "  Jethro  honored  Moses,  in  order  to  honor  himself,  and 
found  ample  reward  for  his  friendship  in  securing  such  a  son-in- 
law.  Still,  his  descendants  and  nation  were  in  later  generations 
rewarded  for  the  merits  of  their  patriarch.  How  much  greater 
will  be  the  reward  of  those  hospitable  citizens  who  harbored  the 
sages  in  their  tribulations!"  E.  Jose  took  the  text,  "Thou 
shalt  no^  abhor  an  Egyptian,  because  thou  wert  a  stranger  in  his 
land"  (Deut.  xxiii.  7),  and  concluded,  "The  Egyptians  merely 
allowed  the  Israelites  to  settle  in  the  land  for  the  benefit  of  the 
Egyptians,  for  it  is  stated:  'Pharaoh  said  to  Joseph,  If  thou 
knowest  any  men  of  activity  among  them  (the  brothers),  then 
make  them  rulers  over  my  cattle.'  Still  it  was  enjoined  upon 
the  Israelites  for  all  generations  to  entertain  friendly  feelings 
towards  the  Egyptians,  how  much  more  towards  the  disinterested 
citizens  of  this  city,  who  maintained  the  sages  ! " 

*See  Graetz,  History  of  the  Jews,  Vol.  IV.,  135  (Am.  ed.). 


54  VALEDICTOKIES. 

E.  Elieser,  son  of  K.  Jose,  from  Galilee,  spoke  about  the  text, 
"  And  the  ark  of  the  Lord  continued  in  the  home  of  Obed-edom, 
the  Gittite,  three  months:  and  the  Lord  blessed  Obed-edom  and 
all  his  household  "  (2  Sam.  vi.  11).  He  concluded  his  address: 
"When  this  man,  who  merely  kept  the  ark  in  his  house  and  had 
no  care  for  its  support  by  nourishment,  was  so  richly  blessed  by 
the  Lord,  how  much  more  will  the  Lord  bestow  His  gracious 
blessings  upon  our  hosts  !  " 

The  valedictory  of  the  sages  who  left  the  college  of  R.  Ami  is 
preserved  in  the  Talmud  (Berachot  16,  b):  "Mayest  thou  enjoy 
thy  world  in  this  life,  but  thy  aim  be  for  the  world  to  come,  thy 
hope  from  generation  to  generation.  May  thy  heart  meditate 
wisdom,  thy  mouth  utter  knowledge,  thy  tongue  overflow  of 
songs,  thine  eyelids  look  right  on  before  thee  (Prov.  iv.  25).  May 
thine  eyes  shine  in  the  light  of  the  law,  thy  countenance  shed 
light  like  the  brightness  of  the  sky  (Dan.  xii.  3);  may  thy  lips 
proclaim  understanding;  thy  soul  exult  in  righteousness,  and 
thy  steps  be  directed  to  hear  the  words  of  God.''  (Dan.  vii.  9). 

Deeply  touching  and  impressing  the  highest  moral  principles 
were  the  valedictories  of  dying  teachers  from  their  mourning  dis- 
ciples and  colleagues. 

The  Talmud  (Berachot  28,  b)  gives  us  the  death-bed  scene  of 
E.  Yochanan  ben  Sakkai,  the  preserver  of  Judaism  after  the  de- 
struction of  the  Temple. 

His  colleagues  and  disciples  surrounded  his  bed,  when  the 
time  arrived  that  he  should  appear  before  the  throne  of  the 
Most  High  to  receive  the  rewards  for  his  pilgrimage  on  earth. 
His  eyes  were  filled  with  tears.  Astonished  they  asked,  "0 
beloved  teacher,  light  of  Israel,  steadfast  pillar  of  the  Law,  what 
can  cause  thee  to  weep?  "  He  replied,  "  If  I  had  to  appear  before 
a  mortal  king,  who  is  to-day  powerful,  but  to-morrow  in  his  grave, 
whose  anger  is  passing  by,  whose  punishments  are' only  for  the 
moment,  would  I  not  tremble  ?  And  even  if  I  am  put  to  death  by 
him,  it  is  merely  a  separation  from  this  world.  And  still  I  could 
hope  to  pacify  him  by  eloquent  words,  or  bribe  him  with  trea- 
sures.    But  I  am  now  about  to  appear  before  the  awful  majesty 


DEATH-BED    SCENE   OF    R.  YOCHAXAN    BEN    SAKKAI.  55 

of  the  King  of  Kings;  before  the  Holy  and  Blessed  One,  who  is 
and  who  liveth  forever,  whose  just  anger  may  be  eternal,  and 
who  may  doom  me  to  everlasting  punishment.  Should  He  con- 
demn me,  it  will  be  to  death  without  further  hope  or  appeal. 
Nor  can  I  pacify  Him  with  words,  nor  bribe  Him  with  riches. 
There  are  two  roads  before  me,  one  leading  to  Paradise,  the  other 
to  hell,  and  I  know  not  by  which  of  these  I  go."  His  disciples 
requested  him  to  bless  them;  and  he  prayed,  "that  the  fear  of 
Heaven  may  be  upon  them  as  the  fear  of  flesh  and  blood :  the 
transgressor  has  a  real  fear  of  detection  by  his  fellow-men, 
would  that  he  could  equally  realize  the  truth,  that  he  is  seen 
by  God!"* 

When  R.  Elieser  was  dangerously  sick,  his  four  colleagues,  E. 
Akiba,  K.  Tarphon,  B,  Joshua,  and  E.  Eleasar  paid  him  a 
visit.     The  sick  Eabbi  complained,  "An  intense  heat  of  the  sun 

*At  the  close  of  this  narrative,  R  Yochanan  is  represented  as  directing 
his  assembled  disciples  to  prepare  a  seat  for  Hezekiah,  "who  was  coming. 
It  is  generally  supposed  that  by  Hezekiah,  the  King  of  Judah  of  that 
name  is  referred  to,  according  to  the  statement  of  the  Talmud.  No  suffi- 
cient reason  could  be  given  why  the  sage  should  have  referred  to  that  man 
in  preference  of  any  other.  Geiger  (Jiidische  Zeitschrift,  Vol.  8)  has 
shown  with  great  probability  that  an  Hezekiah  nearer  to  the  time  of  R. 
Yochanan  is  referred  to.  A  brave  man,  named  Hezekiah,  was  one  of  the 
first  who  revolted  in  Galilee  against  the  government  of  the  Romans,  and 
as  it  appears,  even  by  the  partial  account  of  Josephus  (the  only  source 
for  the  events  of  that  time),  he  revolted  with  considerable  success.  Al- 
though Josephus  (Antiquities  xiv.  9,  2),  in  his  partiality  for  the  Romans, 
calls  Hezekiah  a  captain  of  robbers,  who  with  a  great  troop  of  men 
overran  the  neighboring  parts  of  Syria,  such  must  not  mislead  us  about 
the  character  of  Hezekiah,  as  Josephus  considered  every  prominent  lea- 
der of  the  Jewish  forces  against  Roman  tyranny  a  captain  of  robbers, 
while  the  Roman  generals  were  not  only  heroes,  but  also  inspired  by  the 
most  humane  feelings  in  crucifying  and  slaughtering  the  Jews.  If  par- 
tial history  neglected  to  report  anything  about  his  heroic  deeds,  he 
nevertheless  lived  in  the  memory  of  the  people  as  a  hero  and  a  savior. 
His  efforts,  however,  were  unhappily  checked  by  Herod,  and  by  Heze- 
kiah's  death  the  hopes  for  a  restoration  of  the  independence  of  the  Jew- 
ish state,  as  in  the  time  of  the  Maccabees,  whose  warfare  he  imitated, 
were  again  destroyed.  It  seems  that  also  the  obscure  assertion  of  R. 
Hillel  (Sanh.  98,  b),  "Israel  has  not  to  expect  a  future  Messiah,  he  has 
been  eaten  up  in  the  time  of  Hezekiah,*'  is  a  reference  to  that  unsuccess- 
ful chieftain,  whose  untimely  end  blasted  the  hopes  of  an  early  es- 
cape from  the  hands  of  the  Romans. 


56  VALEDICTORIES. 

prevails  over  the  world."  While  the  visitors,  with  the  exception 
of  R.  Akiba,  were  deeply  moved,  R.  Akiba  appeared  cheerful. 
"Why  dost  thou  differ  from  us  in  thy  feelings,  and  dost 
not  seem  to  observe  the  great  suffering  of  our  colleague?" — "I 
saw  him  always  live  in  abundance  and  wealth,  successful  in  his 
earthly  affairs,  and  I  was  afraid  that  he  reap  already  in  this  world 
the  rewards  for  his  good  deeds,  and  that  he  may  suffer  for  his 
sins  in  the  other  world.  But  now  that  I  observe  him  suffering 
lam  satisfied  about  his  future  bliss."  "But,"  the  sick  Rabbi 
asked,  "  didst  thou  see  me  commit  any  sin?  "  "  Thy  own  teach- 
ing," replied  Akiba  :  "there  lives  no  man  that  does  not  com- 
mit sin."  Thereupon  the  other  sages  tried  to  comfort  the 
patient.  "Thou  wert  to  Israel  more  blissful  than  rain,  for  thou 
promotedst  our  welfare  for  this  and  the  future  world,"  remarked 
R.  Tarphon.  "Thy  light  was  more  pleasing  than  sunlights, 
illuminating  the  road  to  a  happier  life,"  R.  Joshua  said.  "  Thy 
instruction  was  to  be  preferred  to  that  of  parents,  leading  to 
eternal  life,"  R.  Eleasar  comforted.  Then  R.  Akiba  spoke 
about  the  purifying  influence  of  suffering  and  pains. 


THE    OLDEST   FABLES.  57 


CHAPTEE  VII. 

FABLES  IN  THE  TALMUD. 

Fables,  or  that  kind  of  compositions  wherein  animals  or  other 
natural,  sometimes  even  supernatural  beings  are  introduced  as 
speaking  and  acting  like  human  beings,  and  in  such  a  manner 
that  by  these  discourses  and  actions  a  moral  or  practical  idea  is 
impressed,  formed  a  part  of  the  compositions  called  Maslial. 

The  origin  of  fables  was  undoubtedly  in  the  Orient;  and  as  the 
oldest  known  fables  belong  to  Hebrew  literature,  we  may  claim 
with  almost  certainty  that  the  Hebrews  were  the  inventors  of 
these  compositions.  * 

Living  at  first  as  nomadic  shepherds,  they  were  in  constant 
intercourse  with  the  animal  world,  and  had  occasion  to  observe 
the  instincts  and  customs  of  the  different  kinds  of  beasts.  The 
Hebrews  soon  noticed  their  peculiar  qualities,  and  with  the  vivid 
imagination  of  the  Orientals,  were  led  to  invest  them  with  the 
power  of  language,  in  order  to  introduce  them  as  preachers  of 
moral  or  practical  reflections. 

*  It  is  generally  acceedecl  now  that  the  Hindoo  fables  Hitopadesa  are 
of  a  much  later  period  than  the  collection  of  fables  known  under  the 
name  Pantsha  Tantra,  which,  according  to  the  French  scholar  Lance- 
reau,  was  composed  in  the  fifth  century  after  the  Christian  era.  The  fa- 
bles of  Bidpai  have  been  proved  to  be  identical  with  those  of  the  Hito- 
padesa. The  Greek  fables  of  ^Esop  are  to  be  credited  to  Babrios  (about 
206  b.  c.),  who  asserted  in  his  work,  "  The  fable,  O  son  of  King  Alexan- 
der, is  an  old  invention  of  the  Syrians,  who  formerly  lived  in  the  time 
of  Ninus  and  Belus.  They  were  related  to  the  descendants  of  the  Hel- 
lenes by  the  wise  ^Esop,  and  to  the  Libyrians  by  Kybisses."  By  the 
expression  ' '  Syrians  "  Babrios  might  have  understood  the  Hebrews,  as 
the  Greeks  very  often  called  them  by  that  name;  and  this  appears  in 
Herodotus  ii.,  104,  and  several  other  passages.  Even  if  we  admit  the 
identity  of  ^Esop  (which  is  much  doubted),  he  would  have  lived  about 
560  B.  c. ,  and  his  fables  would  still  be  of  a  later  date  than  those  in  the 
Bible. 


58  FABLES   IN   THE   TALMUD. 

The  oldest  fables  extant  are  Jotham's  fable  of  the  trees  (Judges 
ix.  8),  and  the  one  related  by  King  Jehoash  (2  Kings  xiv.  0). 

In  the  first  Book  of  Kings  (v.  13,  Hebrew  version)  we  read 
about  Solomon:  "  And  he  spake  three  thousand  parables  (Mashal) 
and  his  songs  were  one  thousand  and  five  (or  more  correct,  ac- 
cording to  the  Greek  version:  '  five  thousand  ').  And  he  spake 
of  trees,  from  the  cedar-tree  that  is  in  Lebanan,  even  unto  the 
hyssop  that  springeth  out  of  the  wall:  he  spake  also  of  beasts, 
and  of  fowl,  and  of  creeping  things,  and  of  fishes."  The  Biblical 
author  could  not  have  suspected  Solomon  of  possessing  physical 
knowledge  about  all  these  beings,  but  rather  in  connection  with 
the  foregoing  verse  wished  to  express  that  his  parables  and  fables 
extended  over  the  vegetable  and  animal  kingdoms. 

Fables  and  parables  were  much  cultivated  and  highly  esteemed 
by  the  Babbis  of  the  Mishna  and  Talmud.  In.  the  introduction 
to  the  Midrash  of  Shir  Hashirim,  it  is  beautifully  expressed, 
"Do  not  think  slightly  of  this  parable,  for,  through  the  parable, 
man  is  better  enabled  to  appreciate  the  importance  of  the  laws." 
This  assertion  is  again  supported  by  numerous  similes,  from 
which  we  select  the  following:  "A  king  has  lost  gold  and  pre- 
cious stones  in  his  palace;  but  by  the  assistance  of  a  candle  which 
is  not  worth  more  than  a  penny,  he  discovers  the  treasure." 

About  Babbi  Yochanan  ben  Sakkai  (Succah  28,  a;  Baba  Batra 
134,  a)  the  Talmud  says  that,  besides  other  sciences,  he  was  well 
versed  in  fables  about  the  foxes  Q^yitr  Tvbwo  (a  generic  name  for 
fables  about  animals)  and  in  fables  of  fullers  q^did  rv6^E-* 

These  fables  very  likely  already  existed  as  a  collection,  recorded 
at  an  early  date,  but  have  been  lost  as  such,  and  were  partly  pre- 
served in  the  memory  of  the  learned.    Fables  which  were  applied 


*  The  expression  Q^Dia  has  been  differently  explained,  but  the  above 
translation  seems  the  most  probable.  It  appears  by  2  Kings  (xviii.  17) 
and  Isaiah  (vii.  3)  that  the  fullers,  whose  occupation  was  to  cleanse  and 
scour  all  kinds  of  materials,  had  a  special  quarter,  at  a  distance  from  the 
populated  part  of  the  city,  assigned  to  them  for  their  business.  These 
men,  referred  to  as  an  ignorant  class,  very  likely  improved  the  oppor- 
tunity, when  working  together  at  the  pond,  to  exhibit  their  natural  wits 
and  to  relate  all  kinds  of  stories. 


THE    LION"    AND   THE   IBIS.  59 

at  a  later  time  and  on  different  occasions  for  the  edification  of  the 
people,  might  have  been  taken  from  that  collection.  It  appears 
improbable  that  they  should  have  been  entirely  lost  from  the 
memory  of  the  disciples,  but  rather  that  they  were  transmitted  by 
tradition. 

Among  the  disciples  of  R.  Yochanan  it  seems  that  R.  Joshua 
ben  Chananya  paid  especial  attention  to  this  branch,  and  applied 
it  sometimes  in  his  public  lectures.  In  Bereshit  Rabba  (c.  64) 
R.  Joshua  is  described  as  a  popular  lecturer,  renowned  for  his 
witty  remarks. 

When  the  Roman  Emperor  Hadrian,  after  having  permitted 
the  Jews  to  restore  their  Temple,  curtailed  aud  cunningly  mis- 
represented his  promises,  so  that  the  Jews  were  disappointed  in 
their  ardent  hopes  and  again  prevented  to  rebuild  their  Temple, 
the  Jews  took  up  arms,  an  insurrection  was  impending,  and  a 
bitter  war  seemed  unavoidable.  Then  R.  Joshua,  in  order  to 
.pacify  the  people,  addressed  them  with  the  following  fable  and 
restrained  them  from  an  immediate  uprising.     He  said : 

1.  The  Lion  and  the  Ibis. 

i 

"A  lion  once  devoured  his  prey,  but  a  bone  of  his  victim 
remained  stuck  in  his  throat.  In  his  agony  he  promised  a  large 
reward  to  any  one  who  would  extract  the  bone.  An  ibis  with  a 
long  beak  thereupon  offered  his  services,  successfully  performed 
the  operation,  and  relying  upon  the  promise  of  the  lion,  demanded 
the  reward.  But  the  lion  sneeringly  remarked,  '  Thou  mayest 
congratulate  thyself  on  having  withdrawn  thy  head  from  the 
lion's  jaws  without  coming  to  harm.''  'Precisely  so,'  added 
Joshua,  'should  we  congratulate  ourselves  on  having  escaped 
uninjured  from  the  Roman's  hand,  and  should  not  thus  vehe- 
mently insist  upon  the  keeping  of  his  promise."* 

From  R.  Joshua  ben  Chananya  the  knowledge  of  fables  seems 


*  This  fable  appears  also  in  the  Greek  collection  of  fables  by  Babrios, 
•wherein  the  lion  and  the  ibis  changed  roles  with  a  wolf  and  a  crane.  The 
Hebrew  seems  to  be  the  more  natural  and  therefore  the  older. 


60  FABLES   IN   THE   TALMUD. 

to  have  been  transmitted  to  his  disciple  R.  Akiba,  who  appears 
in  the  following  narrative  as  applying  a  beautiful  fable. 

A  decree  was  promulgated  in  Jadea  by  the  Roman  Emperor 
Hadrian  imposing  the  most  vigorous  penalties  upon  all  who 
observed  the  Sabbath  and  circumcision,  or  who  occupied  them- 
selves with  the  study  and  instruction  of  the  Jewish  law.  Respect- 
ing the  compulsory  omission  of  the  religious  duties,  the  teachers 
set  the  example  to  yield  for  the  time  being,  and  not  to  expose 
themselves  to  death;  but  regarding  the  preservation  of  the  Law, 
they,  on  the  other  hand,  almost  coveted  martyrdom.  On  this 
point  they  saw  the  holiest  interests  of  Judaism  involved,  and  life 
was  to  be  sacrificed  rather  than  abandon  these  principles.  One 
of  the  martyrs  for  this  holy  cause  was  R.  Akiba.  Pappus  ben 
Judah,  a  friend  of  Akiba,  counselled  submission  at  any  cost, 
and  warned  him  to  discontinue  his  meetings  with  his  discijdes. 
Akiba  demonstrated  to  him,  in  a  fable,  that  the  fear  of  death  was 
idle  as  well  as  sinful. 

2.  The  Fox  and  the  Fishes. 

"A  fox  was  walking  by  the  river  side.  He  sees  the  fishes 
clustering  from  place  to  place,'  and  asks  them  from  what  they  are 
fleeing.  They  answer,  '  From  the  nets  which  men  are  bringing 
upon  us.'  He  asks,  '  Is  it  your  pleasure  to  come  up  on  the  land, 
that  you  and  I  may  dwell  together,  as  your  fathers  dwelt  with  my 
fathers?'  They  said  to  him,  'Most  foolish  of  beasts,  if  we  are 
afraid  in  the  place  of  our  life,  how  much  more  must  we  fear  the 
place  of  our  death ! '  So  Israel  maybe  distressed  even  in  their 
native  element,  the  Torah,  '  which  is  thy  life  and  the  length 
of  thy  days; '  but  to  leave  it,  is  certain  death." 

The  three  Rabbis  just  mentioned,  lived  during  the  first  cen- 
tury. 

It  is  reported,  that  R.  Meir,  who  lived  in  the  second  century, 
possessed  no  less  than  three  hundred  fables  about  foxes,*  of  which 

*  Bar  Kappora  is  also  stated  to  be  the  author  of  three  hundred  fables 
about  foxes.  This  round  number  appears  as  an  allusion  to  the  three  hun- 
dred foxes  which  Samson  caught,  and  fastening  a  fire-brand  to  every 


THE    FOX    AND   THE    LION.  01 

the  Talmud  and  Midrasli  report  that  three  referred  to  the  three 
biblical  verses: 

"  The  fathers  have  eaten  sour  grapes,  and  the  children's  teeth 
are  set  on  edge"  (Ez.  xviii.  2).  "  Just  balances,  just  weights 
(shall  ye  have)  "  (Lev.  xix.  36),  and  lastly,  "  The  righteous  is  de- 
livered out  of  trouble,  and  the  wicked  cometh  in  his  stead " 
(Prov.  xi.  8.)*  The  fables  themselves  are  not  given,  but  they 
were  known  by  tradition  to  later  Rabbis:  E.  Hai  Gaon  (969- 
10)38)  and  Rashi  (in  the  eleventh  century).  The  first  relates  the 
fable  referring  to  the  verse  of  Ezekiel. 


'o 


3.  The  Fox  and  the  Lion. 

A  fox,  about  to  become  the  prey  of  a  lion,  addressed  him, 
"  Behold,  I  am  not  large  enough  to  satisfy  thy  hunger,  but  I  will 
show  thee  a  fleshy,  fat  man,  who  will  fully  satisfy  thee.  The  lion 
consented  and  was  led  by  the  fox  to  a  pit  covered  with  bushes, 
while  on  the  opposite  side  sat  a  man,  who  could  only  be  reached 
by  a  jump  over  the  pit.  The  lion  hesitated  and  said,  looking  at 
the  man,  "I  fear  his  prayers,  he  will  hurt  me."  The  fox  encour- 
aged him,  "  Thy  sins  will  be  visited  upon  thy  children  and  upon 
the  children's  children  "  (Ex.  xix.  5).  The  lion,  deluded  by  these 
words,  jumped,  but  fell  into  the  pit.  The  fox  looked  down  into 
the  pit,  satisfied  at  being  out  of  danger.  The  lion  reproached 
him,  "Didst  thou  not  say  the  punishment  will  only  come  upon 
my  children?"  "So  it  will  happen,"  replied  the  fox,  "but  thy 
grandfather  sinned  already,  and  thou  hast  to  suffer  for  that." 
The  lion  thereon  complained,  "  The  fathers  have  eaten  sour 
grapes,  and  the  children's  teeth  are  set  on  edge."  f 

Rashi  has  another  fable: 

4.  The  Fox  and  the  Wolf. 

"A  fox  induced  a  wolf  to  accompany  him  into  a  kitchen, 

pair  of  them,  let  loose  upon  the  fields  of  the  Philistines.  So  these  authors 
sent  three  hundred  fables  about  the  foxes  among  men,  to  punish  arro- 
gance and  other  vices. 

*  Sanh.  38,  b.  f  Sefer  Shaare  Teshuba  by  E.  Hai  Gaon. 


62  FABLES    IN   THE    TALMUD. 

where  preparations  for  the  Sabbath  were  made,  and  where  they 
could  help  and  then  partake  of  the  meals.  The  wolf  had  hardly 
entered  when  he  was  captured  and  maltreated.  Angry  thereat 
he  determined  to  tear  the  fox  to  pieces,  under  the  pretext  that 
the  forefathers  of  the  fox  had  once  stolen  his  food.  Astonished 
the  fox  asked,  "  For  the  sins  of  my  ancestors  shall  I  be  punished?  " 
But  the  wolf  replied,  "The  fathers  have  eaten  sour  grapes,  and 
the  children's  teeth  are  set  on  edge."  "Nay,"  said  the  fox, 
"come  with  me,  I  shall  bring  thee  to  another  place,  where  we 
shall  find  plenty  to  eat  and  drink.'"  The  fox  brought  now  the 
wolf  to  a  well,  where  two  buckets  were  fastened  together  by  a 
rope  like  a  balance.  The  fox  jumped  into  one  of  the  buckets, 
which,  of  course,  went  down  with  him  to  the  bottom  of  the  well. 
"  What  dost  thou  find  down  there?"  anxiously  the  wolf  inquired. 
Whereupon  the  sly  fox  replied,  "  Why,  I  have  here  meat  and  cheese 
in  abundance,"  and  showed  the  wolf  the  reflection  of  the  moon  in 
water  which  appeared  like  a  big  piece  of  cheese.  The  hungry 
wolf  thought  best  to  imitate  the  fox,  and  jumped  into  the  empty 
bucket,  which  brought  him  down,  but  the  fox  jumped  up  again. 
"How  shall  I  come  up?"  the  wolf  anxiously  asked,  but  the  fox 
replied,  "The  righteous  is  delivered  out  of  trouble,  and  the 
wicked  cometh  in  his  stead." 

In   the  name  of  K.  Meir  is  quoted  (Sanh.  39,  b)  the  popular 

proverb:  sn:  mi  brb  tas  m  rvro 

"From  his  midst  and  from  his  father's  house  cometh  the  ax 
on  him."  He  applied  this  proverb  to  the  prophecies  of  the  pro- 
phet Obadiah  against  Edom,  who,  according  to  Talmudical  tradi- 
tion, was  a  proselyte  and  a  descendant  of  Edom.*  E.  Meir  un- 
doubtedly referred  thereby  to  a  fable  which  in  its  most  simple 
form  runs  as  follows: 

5.  The  Iron"  and  the  Trees. 

When  the  iron  was  created,  the  trees  commenced  to  tremble. 
The  iron,  however,  said  to  them  :  "What  are  you  trembling  at; 

*R.    Simon  ben  Yochai  applies  the  same    proverb  to  David,   who 
defeated  Moab,  and  was  a  descendant  of  Ruth,  a  Moabite. 


THE    EUPHRATES   AND   THE   TIGRIS.  63 

if  none  of  your  wood  will  join  me,  I  will  remain  harmless  "  (Ber. 
B.  c.  5). 

This  fable  may,  therefore,  he  considered  as  one  of  the  oldest 
extant,  as,  indeed,  the  almost  pure  Hebrew,  in  which  it  is  com- 
posed, would  of  itself  testify. 

The  next  is  another  fable  which  appears  anonymously  ;  but  its 
concise  language  and  comparatively  pure  Hebrew  point  it  also 
out  as  one  of  the  oldest  extant.     It  is  as  follows: 

G.  The  Kivers  and  the  Euphrates. 

All  the  other  rivers  said  to  the  Euphrates:  "  Why  do  thy  waters 
run  so  smoothly  that  thy  voice  is  not  heard  at  a  distance,  like 
ours? "'  The  Euphrates  replied:  "  My  deeds  speak  for  me;-  any- 
thing sown  at  my  shores  will  sprout  in  three  days;  every  plant  in 
my  vicinity  stands  in  full  bloom  after  thirty  days'  planting.  Yea, 
even  the  Bible  speaks  in  my  praise:  'the  great  river,  the  river 
Euphrates'"  (Sifri  Debarim,  Piska  6). 

The  moral  of  this  fable  is  apparent,  and  need  not  be  expressly 
stated.  Very  likely,  already  during  the  first  exile,  when  the 
Jews  had  occasion  for  the  first  time  to  observe  the  smooth  cur- 
rent of  the  Euphrates,  this  fable  was  suggested. 

This  fable  was  not  only  several  times  repeated  and  somewhat 
extended  by  later  writers,  but  farther  developed  to  a  twin  fable, 
comprising  the  two  twin  rivers  Euphrates  and  Tigris. 

7.  The  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris. 

All  the  other  rivers  said  to  the  Euphrates  :  ''Why  is  the  cur- 
rent of  thy  water  not  heard  at  a  distance?"'  The  Euphrates 
replied  :  "My  deeds  testify  for  me.  Anything  sown  by  men  at 
my  shores  will  be  in  full  bloom  within  thirty  days."  The  rivers 
then  addressed  the  Tigris:  "Why  is  the  current  of  thy  water 
heard  at  a  distance  ? "  "I  must  direct  the  attention  of  the  people 
to  me  by  my  tumultuous  rapidity,"  the  Tigris  replied  (Ber.  B. 
c.  16). 

The  moral  idea  underlying  the  original  fable  about  the 
Euphrates  appears  more  forcibly  expressed  by  this  latter  fable 


64  FABLES   IN   THE   TALMUD. 

about  the  two  rivers.     The  less  the    merits  of  a  person  are,  the 
more  he  will  feel  urged  to  proclaim  them  to  the  public. 

A  close  imitation  of  the  foregoing  fable  was  formed  as  a  dis- 
course between  the  different  trees. 

8.  The*  Forest-Trees  and  the  Fruit-Trees. 

The  forest-trees  once  asked  the  fruit-trees  :  "Why  is  the  rus- 
tling of  your  leaves  not  heard  at  a  distance  ?  "  The  fruit-trees 
replied:  "We  can  dispense  with  the  rustling  to  manifest  our 
presence,  our  fruits  testify  for  us."  The  fruit-trees  then  inquired 
of  the  forest-trees  :  "  Why  do  your  leaves  rustle  almost  continu- 
ally p  " — "  We  are  forced  to  call  the  attention  of  men  to  our  exist- 
ence" (Bereshit  E.  c.  16). 

In  Shir  Hashirim  Eabba  (c.  6),  the  following  fable  appears, 
which  may  also  be  considered  as  old. 

9.  The  Straw,  the  Chaff,  and  the  Stubble. 

"The  straw,  the  chaff,  and  the  stubble  were  disputing  on 
whose  account  the  field  is  worked  with  great  care.  The  wheat, 
listening  to  the  dispute,  said:  'Just  wait  until  the  harvest,  and 
the  dispute  will  be  settled.'  After  harvesting,  the  farmer  sep- 
arated the  different  parts,  the  chaff  was  left  to  the  wind,  the 
straw  thrown  to  the  ground,  the  stubble  burnt,  and  the  wheat 
brought  to  the  barn  for  future  use,  and  every  one  who  saw  it, 
admired  it." 

This  fable  is  applied  to  the  indestructibility  of  Israel,  and 
appears  also  in  later  Midrash  works. 

A  beautiful  fable  is  "the  fox  as  a  singer,"  which  appears  in 
Esther  Eabba  (c.  7)  and  Yalkut  Esther  (section  1053),  but 
whose  original  form  seems  to  be  preserved  in  Midrash  Abba-Go- 
rion,  published  for  the  first  time  by  Dr.  Jellinek,  in  1853. 

In  connection  with  the  passage  ' '  And  both  were  hung  on  the 
gallows  "  (Esther  ii.  23),  Eabbi  Pinchas  relates  : 

10.  The  Fox  as  a  Singer. 
"The  lion  arranged  a  feast  for  all  the  beasts  of  the  forest,  and 
had  for  that  purpose  a  large  tent  erected,  covered  with  skins 


THE    FOX    AS    A    SINGER.  65 

of  lions.  The  beasts  fully  enjoyed  the  feast,  and  having  done 
honor  to  the  delicacies  offered,  expressed  the  wish  to  have  the 
occasion  enlivened  by  a  song,  looking  encouragingly  upon  the 
fox.  The  sly  animal,  flattered  by  the  general  request,  expressed 
his  willingness  to  sing,  and  asked  them  to  join  him  in  chorus. 
With  his  eyes  raised  up  to  the  ceiling,  he  sang :  '  He,  who 
granted  us  the  pleasure  to  see  those  above  (the  skins  of  the  lions 
above),  may  let  us  also  see  those  below  '  (the  skins  of  the  lions 
below).  Israel  also  said  at  the  time  of  Hainan:  He,  who 
granted  us  the  sight  of  Bigthan  and  Theresh,  those  placed  on 
high,  may  let  us  behold  Hainan  in  the  same  position.  Who 
punished  the  crimes  of  the  first  ones,  may  also  punish  the 
other. " 

The  sense  and  moral  of  this  fable  are:  the  fall  of  one  enemy 
does  not  justify  great  rejoicing  as  long  as  another  powerful  foe 
may  yet  use  his  force  for  our  destruction.  The  fox  preached 
this  moral  to  the  short-sighted  animals,  who  forgot  the  presence 
of  their  mighty  foe. 

This  fable  appears  to  have  a  historical  signification,  since  it 
seems  to  be  connected  with  the  death  of  the  two  Roman  emperors 
Constantius  and  Gallus — under  the  names  of  Bigthan  and  Theresh 
— from  whom  Judea  had  much  to  suffer  ;  and  it  also  has  refer- 
ence to  the  assuming  of  the  government  by  the  emperor  Julian, 
of  whom  the  Jews  hoped  the  approach  of  a  happier  time  and 
the  restoration  of  the  temple.  Eabbi  Pinchas,  the  author  of 
that  fable,  less  hopeful  than  his  contemporaries,  warned  them  : 
"Do  not  rejoice  too  early,  Rome  remains  Rome,  even  under  a 
Julian  !  No  matter  what  changes  take  place  on  the  throne  of 
Rome,  almost  every  monarch  proves  an  enemy  of  the  Jews." 

The  serpent  is  the  hero  of  a  fable  which  has  its  origin  in  the 
Bible,  and  winds  through  the  different  books  -of  Talmudical  lit- 
erature, more  or  less  enlarged.  It  is  the  application  and  exten- 
sion of  the  words  of  Koheleth  (Eccl.  x.  11).  "Surely,  if  the 
serpent  has  bitten,  enchantment  cannot  cure,  and  an  idle  talker 
is  no  better." 

The  most  simple  and,   therefore,  very  probably  the  original 
5 


66  FABLES   IN   THE   TALMUD. 

form  of  the  fable  appears  in  the  Talmud  (Taanit  8,  a;  Erachin 
15,  b). 

11.  The  Serpent. 

Eesh  Lakish  asserted  :  "  It  is  written,  *  if  the  serpent  has  bit- 
ten, enchantment  cannot  cure. '  At  a  future  time,  all  the  beasts 
of  the  forest  will  address  the  serpent:  'Behold,  if  the  lion 
tears  a  wolf,  he  eats  him  up  and  enjoys  his  prey;  what  advan- 
tage hast  thou  when  thou  bitest  ? '  The  serpent  will  answer: 
'  Pray,  what  advantage  has  the  idle  talker  of  his  slanders?' 

This  fable,  and  still  more  its  extended  form  in  Jer.  Pea  i. ; 
Tanchuma,  Chukkath,  and  especially  Debarim  Rabba  c.  5, 
seems  to  have  been  directed  against  those  defamers  who,  at  the 
time  of  Eesh  Lakish  and  at  a  later  date,  brought  distress  upon 
the  teachers  and  leaders  of  the  Jews,  when  espionage  and  accu- 
sations flourished  under  the  Roman  government. 

The  following  is  a  fable  to  illustrate  the  union  between  Midian 
and  Moab:  When  the  children  of  Israel  approached  the  boun- 
daries of  Moab,  the  king  of  Moab  (which  formed  a  monarchy) 
sent  messengers  to  the  elders  of  Moab  (a  kind  of  republic)  to 
combine  with  them  against  Israel.  About  this  unnatural  union, 
a  monarchy  with  a  republic,  the  Talmud  (Sanh.  105,  a)  remarks 
that  Midian  and  Moab  were  all  the  time  in  war  with  one 
another  (Gen!  xxxvi.  35),  but  united  against  Israel;  and  applies 
to  them  the  story  of 

12.  Two  Dogs. 

"  Two  dogs  fighting  all  the  time,  saw  one  day  a  wolf  coming  from 
the  forest,  with  the  desire  of  attacking  one  of  them.  The  other 
dog  said:  '  If  I  neglect  to  assist  the  dog  now,  to-morrow  my  turn 
will  come  to  be  torn  by  the  wolf.'  Thereupon  both  with  united 
force  killed  the  wolf." 

To  this  union  between  Midian  and  Moab,  the  Talmud  also 
applies  the  popular  proverb:  "  The  field-mouse  and  the  cat  made 
a  common  feast  of  an  unfortunate  beast"  (ibid.). 

To  the  passage  in  Amos  (v.  18),  "Woe  unto  you  that  desire 


THE  MULE,  THE  DONKEY,  AND  THE  PIG.         67 

the  day  of  the  Lord  !  To  what  end  is  it  for  you  ?  The  day  of 
the  Lord  is  darkness  and  not  light,"  the  Talmud  (Sanh.  98,  b) 
gives  the  fable: 

13.  The  Rooster  and  the  Owl. 

"  A  rooster  and  an  owl  were  waiting  together  for  the  rising  of 
the  sun.  'The  light,' said  the  rooster,  'is  forme.  I  can  use 
it,  but,  pray,  what  advantage  wilt  thou  derive  from  it?'" 

To  illustrate  the  passage  in  Esther:  "After  these  things, 
did  King  Ahasuerus  promote  Haman,  the  son  of  Hammedatha, 
the  Agagite,  and  advanced  him,  and  set  him  above  all  princes 
that  were  with  him."  The  fate  of  Haman  was  compared  with 
that  of  a  pig  in  the  fable : 

14.  The  Mule,  the  Donkey,  and  the  Pig. 

"A  man  had  a  mule,  a  donkey,  and  a  pig.  While  the  pig- 
received  an  abundance  of  food,  the  mule  and  donkey  were  kept 
on  short  allowance.  The  mule,  envious  of  the  pig,  complained 
to  the  donkey:  'How  foolishly  does  our  master  treat  us.  We, 
who  have  to  do  all  his  work,  are  very  stingily  fed,  while  the  lazy 
pig  receives  a  large  quantity  of  food.'  But  the  older  and  more 
experienced  donkey  replied:  'Wait  patiently  for  a  few  days,  and 
you  will  become  aware  that  the  abundance  now  Avill  lead  to  the 
misfortune  of  the  pig.'  And  so  it  came  to  pass.  On  the  next 
coming  holiday  the  pig  was  killed."  * 

To  the  passage  in  Koheleth  (v.  14),  "As  he  came  forth  from 
his  mother's  womb,  naked  shall  he  return  to  go  as  he  came,  and 
shall  take  nothing  of  his  labor,  which  he  may  carry  away  in  his 
hand;"  the  following  fable  is  related  in  the  Midrash  on  this  pas- 
sage. 

15.  The  Fox  in  the  Vineyard. 
"A  fox  once  came  near  a  vineyard,  but  a  high  wall  stood  be- 

*  As  Jews  were  not  allowed  to  raise  pigs,  the  owner  of  that  animal  was 
necessarily  introduced  as  a  Roman  heathen,  and,  therefore,  the  holiday 
is  caUed  calendus  in  the  text,  designating  the  first  day  of  each  month 
celebrated  by  the  Romans. 


68  FABLES   IN   THE   TALMUD. 

tween  him  and  the  tempting  fruits  inside.  He  went  about  in 
search  of  an  entrance  and  at  last  found  an  opening  in  the  wall ; 
but  it  was  too  small  for  his  big  body.  He  fasted  three  days,  un- 
til at  last  sufficiently  reduced  to  crawl  through  the  small  aperture. 
Having  effected  an  entrance,  he  glutted  his  appetite,  and  when 
fully  satisfied,  he  attempted  to  get  out,  but  found  to  his  great 
consternation  that  he  could  not  pass  the  entrance  in  his  present 
state,  and  had  again  to  submit  to  a  fasting  of  three  days.  When 
outside  of  the  garden,  he  exclaimed,  'Vineyard!  vineyard!  thou 
art  indeed  charming  and  delightful,  thy  fruits  are  delicious, 
everything  about  thee  is  beautiful!  But  of  what  benefit  art  thou 
to  me? '  It  is  even  so  with  man.  Naked  comes  he  into  the  world, 
naked  must  he  go  out  of  it." 

Besides  proper  fables,  like  the  foregoing,  wherein  trees  and 
animals  are  introduced  as  speaking  or  acting,  there  also  exist  a 
number  of  other  beautiful  fables,  wherein  other  natural  beings  or 
properties  are  the  actors  or  speakers.  We  will  give  a  few  ex- 
amples. 

16.  The  Tail  as  Leader. 

"The  serpent's  tail  had  a  long  time  followed  the  direction  of 
the  head  with  the  best  results.  One  day  the  tail  began,  "  Thou 
appearest  always  foremost,  but  I  must  remain  in  the  back-ground. 
Why  should  I  not  also  sometimes  lead?"  "Well,"  replied  the 
head,  "  thou  shalt  have  thy  will  for  once  !"  The  tail,  rejoiced, 
accordingly  took  the  lead.  Its  first  exploit  was  to  drag  the  body 
into  a  miry  ditch.  Hardly  escaped  from  that  unpleasant  situation, 
it  marched  on  to  creep  into  a  fiery  furnace.  And  when  relieved 
from  there,  it  continued  its  walk  to  get  entangled  amongst  briars 
and  thorns.  What  caused  all  these  misfortunes?  Because  the 
head  submitted  to  be  guided  by  the  tail!  When  the  lower  classes 
are  guided  by  the  higher,  all  goes  well,  but  if  the  higher  orders 
suffer  themselves  to  be  swayed  by  popular  prejudices,  they  all 
suffer  together."*  (Debarim  R.  i.  71.) 

*  The  Talmud  has  an  appropriate  proverb  on  this  fable  X21J  N^""l  inn 
^"tX    The  body  moves  guided  by  the  head. 


THE  POWER  OF  THE  TONGUE.  69 

On  the  passage  in  Psalms  (vii.  14),  "  Behold,  he  travaileth 
with  iniquity,  and  has  conceived  mischief,  and  brought  forth 
falsehood,"  the  Midrash  has  a  very  interesting  parable,  as  follows: 

17.  Lie  and  Vice. 

"When  the  flood  came  over  the  earth,  and  everything  was 
threatened  with  destruction,  and  every  kind  of  beast  came  in 
pairs  to  Noah,  the  Lie,  too,  asked  for  admittance  into  the  ark. 
Noah,  however,  refused  to  let  her  in,  "  Only  in  pairs  I  can  admit 
thee."  The  Lie  was  searching  for  a  long  time  for  a  suitable  com- 
panion, at  last  it  happened  to  meet  Vice.  It  invited  Vice  to  ac- 
company it  to  the  ark,  but  Vice  had  to  make  first  its  conditions. 
"  I  am  willing  to  keep  company  with  thee,  but  only  if  thou  prom- 
ise all  the  profit  thou  makest  to  give  to  me."  The  Lie  even  agreed 
to  that,  and  they  were  both  admitted  by  Noah  into  the  ark.  After 
they  left  the  ark,  the  Lie  was  sorry  of  the  promise  given,  wished 
to  dissolve  partnership  with  Vice,  but  it  was  too  late  to  repent, 
and  the  agreement  remained  forever:  'what  is  earned  by  the  lie, 
is  consumed  by  vice ! ' "  * 

On  the  passage  in  Psalms  (xxxix.  1),  "I  said,  I  will  take 
heed  to  my  ways,  that  I  sin  not  with  my  tongue,"  in  connection 
with  Proverbs  (xviii.  21),  "Death  and  life  are  in  the  power  of 
the  tongue,"  the  Midrash  (to  Ps.)  has  the  following  parable. 

18.  The  Power  of  the  Tongue. 

A  king,  who  was  dangerously  sick,  was  recommended  to 
drink  the  milk  of  a  lioness  (Hebr.  Lebia).  The  king  offered  a 
high  price  for  it,  and  a  man  tendered  his  service  to  procure  it. 
After  many  dangerous  exploits  the  man  succeeded  in  procuring 

*  This  parable  is  at  the  sanie  time  an  ingenious  Agadic  exposition  to 
Genesis  (ix.  18),  "  And  the  sons  of  Noah  that  went  forth  of  the  ark  were, 
Shem,  and  Ham,  and  Japheth;  and  Hani  is  the  father  of  Canaan."  The 
last  addition  to  the  verse  appears  entirely  superfluous  in  this  place,  as  in 
the  following  chapter  the  complete  genealogy  of  the  sons  of  Noah  is 
given.  The  Midrash  (Genesis  R.  c.  36)  explains  "  the  father  of  Canaan, 
by  "  the  father  of  vice,"  Ham,  the  spiritual  as  well  as  corporal  father  of 
Canaan,  representing  vice,  entered  also  the  ark. 


70  FABLES   IN   THE   TALMUD. 

it,  and  hastened  to  bring  the  milk  to' the  court.     While  on  his 
journey,  he  stopped  at  a  tavern;  the  different  members  of  his 
body  indulged  in  a  lively  dispute.     The  feet  commenced  to  assert, 
"If  we  had  not  carried  the  other  members,  you  had  never  suc- 
ceeded  in  procuring  the   milk!"     "What   an   arrogance!"   the 
hands  exclaimed,  "if  we  had  not  milked  the  lioness,  your  run- 
ning had  been  of  little  benefit."     The  eyes  said,  "Had  we  not 
shown  you  the  way,  and  the  lioness,  what  had  you  been  without 
me?  "     The  heart  (the  seat  of  the  mind  among  the  ancients)  said, 
"  It  was  my  advice  and  my  counsel  that  secured  the  success!  "  At 
last  the  tongue  participated  in  the  dispute,  "  What  would  all  your 
actions  amount  to,  without  me?"     The  other  members  merely 
laughed  derisively  at  the  claims  of  the  tongue,  which,  angry  at 
such  treatment,  said,  "You  shall  find  it  out  to  your  sorrow." 
When  the  man  arrived  at  the  court  and  offered  the  milk,  the 
tongue  called  out,  "  That  is  milk  from  a  KaXba  (bitch)."    The  king 
became  very  wroth  and  ordered  the  man  to  be  hung.     Now  all 
the  members  trembled,  while  the  tongue  laughed.     "Did  I  not 
tell  you  that  you  are  given  into  my  power?    But  I  will  save  you 
again."     "Bring  me  back  before  the  king!"  the  tongue  asked, 
and  when  again  in  the  presence  of  the  king,  the  tongue  said,  "  It 
is  the  milk  of  a  lioness,  what  I  brought;  Lebia  (lioness)  is  also 
called  in  Arabic  Kalba.  *     The  milk  was  investigated  and  found 
correct.     The  man  was  richly  rewarded,  and  the  tongue  proudly 
exclaimed,  "  Life  and  death  are  given  into  my  power!" 

The  power  of  the  tongue  was  a  favorite  theme  with  the  Jewish 
sages.  In  Vayikra  R.  (153)  is  related,  "  K.  Gamaliel  ordered  his 
servant  Tobi  to  bring  something  good  from  the  market,  and  he 
brought  a  tongue.  At  another  time  he  told  him  to  bring  some- 
thing bad,  and  he  also  returned  with  a  tongue.  '  Why  did  you 
on  both  occasions  fetch  a  tongue?  '  the  Eabbi  asked.  '  It  is  the 
source  of  good  and  evil;  if  it  is  good,  there  is  nothing  better,  if 
it  is  bad,  there  is  nothing  worse,'  the  wise  servant  replied." 


*  The  Arabic  Kalbon  is  used  for  dog  and  lion. 


R.   KOHANA    AT   THE    COLLEGE    OF    RESH    LAKISH.  71 


2.  LOST  FABLES. 

Several  of  the  Talmudical  proverbs  prove  themselves  as  traces 
of  fables,  which  do  not  appear  in  Talmudical  literature,  but  may 
be  found  preserved  in  the  literature  of  foreign  nations. 

About  the  camel,  the  Talmud  in  its  concise  manner  says: 

"  The  camel  asked  for  horns  and  was  deprived  of  his  ears." 

The  Greek  fable  relates,  "  the  camel  envied  the  steer  for  his 
horns,  and  prayed  to  Jupiter  to  be  also  ornamented  with  horns. 
That  request,  however,  excited  the  ire  of  the  god,  and  to  punish 
his  envy,  he  had  his  ears  shortened."  Very  likely  a  similar  fable 
existed  among  the  Jews,  to  which  that  saying  referred. 

R.  Kohana  (about  430),  when  he  had  finished  his  studies  at 
Babylon,  where  then  Jewish  sciences  flourished,  visited  Palestine, 
which  at  that  time  presented  the  sombre  picture  of  decay  in  its 
colleges.  At  the  college  of  Resh  Lakish,  Kohana  displayed  such 
profound  knowledge  that  Resh  Lakish  informed  his  brother-in- 
law,  R.  Yochanan  bar  Napcha,  "  that  a  lion  has  come  up  from 
Babylon,"  and  he  may  prepare  himself  carefully  for  his  reception. 
R.  Kohana,  however,  for  some  reasons  not  distinctly  stated,  re- 
mained very  reserved  during  his  first  visit  at  the  college,  and  R. 
Yochanan  said  to  Resh  Lakish: 

"  The  lion  thou  spokest  of,  turned  a  fox  (Baba  Kama  117,  a). 

Here  is  again  a  reference  to  a  lost  fable,  which  must  have  been 
similar  to  the  Greek  fable,  wherein  an  ass  covered  himself  with 
the  skin  of  a  lion.  At  first  he  frightened  man  and  beast,  but  an 
unfriendly  wind  deprived  him  of  his  cover,  and  soon  the  animal 
was  driven  back  with  sticks  into  his  stable. 

In  Midrash  (Bereshit  R.  58),  in  reference  to  the  failure  of  a 
speculation,  the  proverb  is  applied: 

"  The  raven  who  brought  fire  into  his  nest." 

The  commentator  adds  "  that  the  raven  brought  fire  into  the 
nest  to  warm  himself  and  the  fire  consumed  the  nest."     A  similar 


72  FABLES   IN"   THE   TALMUD. 

fable  appears  in  the  Greek  collection.     "  An  eagle  stole  a  piece 
of  meat  from  an  altar  for  his  young  ones,  but  a  burning  coal  at- 
tached to  the  meat  set  the  nest  on  fire,  and  he  and  his  young  ones 
were  burned." 
Two  proverbs: 

"  What  benefit  is  it  to  the  head  if  the  body  is  taken?  " 
"  When  the  head  is  gone,  what  benefit  is  it  to  the  body  ?  "  (Bereshit  R. 
88  and  Yalkut  Vayichi  162.) 

remind  of  the  known  fable  of  Menenius  Agrippa  (of  which  a  sim- 
ilar fable  appears  in  the  Armenian  collection),  "  The  belly  and 
the  feet  disputed  together.  '  We  carry  the  whole  body,'  the 
feet  asserted,  to  which  the  belly  replied,  '  If  I  should  refuse  food 
you  could  not  carry  me!'" 

Some  proverbs  in  the  most  concise  language  paint  ideas  to  the 
eye  which  may  be  worked  out  into  interesting  fables.  Take  for 
instance: 

"  Behold  the  goose,  how  she  stirs  about,  casting  her  eyes  on  all  sides." 

This  proverb  is  sarcastically  applied  to  the  words  of  Abigail, 
"  When  the  Lord  shall  have  dealt  well  with  my  lord,  then  re- 
member thine  handmaid  "  (1  Sam.  xxv.  31).  In  her  petition  for 
her  husband,  she  did  not  neglect  to  recommend  herself  to  the 
good- will  of  David.* 
Another  such  proverb: 

"Say  to  the  wasp,  'Neither  thy  honey,  nor  thy  sting.' "  (Shemot  E.) 


*  We  may  notice  here  that  the  goose  is  set  up  as  a  picture  of  fore- 
sight, for  the  Persians  and  Jews  considered  the  goose  the  symbol  of  wis- 
dom. "  If  any  person  sees  a  goose  in  his  dream,"  the  Talmud  (Berachot 
57,  a)  stated,  "he  may  hope  for  wisdom,  for  it  is  written,  'Wisdom 
crieth  without,  she  uttereth  her  voice  in  the  streets'  (Prov.  i.  20)."  In 
support  of  the  wisdom  of  the  geese,  as  presumed  by  this  passage,  Rapo- 
port,  in  Erech  Millin,  quotes  a  passage  from  Amian  Marcellus  (xviii.  83), 
that  the  wild  geese  which  leave  the  Southern  countries  during  the  hot 
season  pass  the  Taurus  on  their  journey,  and,  as  eagles  abound  in  these 
regions,  which  could  hear  their  cackling,  the  geese  take  stones  into  their 
beaks  and  accelerate  their  flight.  After  passing  the  Taurus,  they  let  fall 
these  stones. 


REFERENCE   TO    LOST   FABLES.  73 

gives  ill  forcible  language  the  advice  to  keep  from  certain  danger- 
ous persons,  even  if  we  expect  some  advantage  from  them. 

A  fable  expressed  in  four  words  appears  in  Talmud  (Sanh.  95  a). 

•'  By  two  dogs  the  lion  was  killed.'1 

What  can  the  great  accomplish,  when  the  mob  oppose  them! 
Short,  but  full  of  meaning! 


74  PROVEEBS   OF   BEN    SIRA. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 
PROVERBS    OF    BEN    SIRA. 

1.  Joshua  ben  Sirach. 

Joshua  ben  Sirach — called  in  the  Talmud  Ben  Sira — a  priest 
of  Jerusalem,  wrote  about  200  b.  c.  a  collection  of  proverbs  in 
the  Hebrew  language,  but  this  collection  has  been  lost.  A  great 
gap  was  thus  created  in  the  history  of  the  Hebrew  language,  as 
we  possess  no  other  work  of  that  period.  Comparatively  only  a 
few  fragments  are  preserved  in  the  Talmud,  but  we  cannot  with 
certainty  know  how  correctly  they  were  reported.  A  grandson 
of  the  author  translated  the  Proverbs  into  Greek,  and  the  transla- 
tion was  handed  down  to  us.  In  the  Talmud  and  Midrash  pro- 
verbs are  often  quoted  in  the  name  of  Ben  Sira,  and  even  some 
of  these  proverbs  are  quoted  with  the  notice  that  they  are  con- 
tained in  the  Scriptures  (D'ZnriD).  Sometimes  sentences  contained 
in  the  Proverbs  appear  in  the  Talmud  without  being  expressly 
credited  to  Ben  Sira. 

The  most  curious  fact  about  these  quotations  is,  that  while  the 
Talmud  cites  the  passages  for  their  intrinsic  value,  the  book 
itself,  together  with  others,  as  for  instance,  Ben  Tagla,  Ben 
Lana,  and  Megillath  Chasidim*  which  are  lost,  was  forbidden 
at  a  later  time  for  general  reading,  and  such  prohibition  caused 
its  loss  in  the  original  language. 

Besides  the  passages  quoted,  a  great  concurrence  between 
Talmud  and  the  Proverbs  of  Sirach  may  be  observed,  which 
would  prove  that  many  spiritual  relations  existed  between  them, 

*  From  Megillath  Chasidim  only  one  sentence  was  preserved  in  the 
Talmud  (Jer.  Berachot,  end)  -pTJ?X  Q'Dr  "Oiryn  DV>  "If  thou  forsakest 
me  (the  Law)  one  day,  I  will  forsake  thee  two  days."  This  sentence 
would  make  it  probable  that  the  book  was  written  in  pure  Hebrew. 


THEIR    PHILOSOPHICAL   TENDENCY.  75 

but  while  Siracb/s  sentences  have  a  more  philosophical  tendency, 
in  the  Talmud  the  theological  spirit  is  predominant. 

2.  Contents  of  the  Proverbs. 

The  contents  of  these  proverbs,  like  those  of  Solomon's,  which 
formed  the  prototype  of  Ben  Sira,  extend  over  the  whole  sphere  of 
moral  and  practical  life,  and  are  the  reflex  of  the  period  in  which 
the  author  lived.  That  period  was  a  very  sad  one  in  the  history 
of  the  Jews,  and  gave  rise  to  most  serious  reflections. 

About  seventy  years  before  the  outbreak  of  the  wars  of  the 
Maccabees,  Judea  was  tributary  to  Egypt.  King  Ptolomy  farmed 
out  the  taxes  of  Judea,  Samaria,  Celesyria,  and  Phoenicia  to 
Joseph,  son  of  Tobias,  grandson  of  Simon  the  Just.  Joseph  for 
twenty-two  years  collected  the  taxes  from  those  countries  with 
an  iron  hand,  and  as  a  matter  of  course,  he  together  with  his 
officers  and  satellites  became  very  rich. 

The  Jews  had  lived  up  to  that  time  mostly  as  farmers  and 
mechanics,  now  a  new  class  of  citizens,  a  moneyed  aristocracy, 
was  added  to  the  population,  something  entirely  new  and  demora- 
lizing, This  new  class,  which  generally  acquired  its  wealth  by 
the  most  contemptible  means,  soon  abandoned  the  national 
virtues  for  Greek  manners  and  vices.  Its  members  also  became 
accpiainted  with  the  Greek  literature  and  philosophy  which  they 
soon  learned  to  admire,  and  accordingly  they  substituted  these 
for  their  own  as  the  more  fashionable.  After  the  death  of  Joseph, 
a  feud  arose  between  his  sons,  which  in  the  end  caused  the  down- 
fall of  Judea  through  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  and  brought  untold 
sufferings  upon  the  Jews. 

Joshuah  ben  Sirach  was  a  witness  of  these  feuds  and  of  the 
bitter  antagonism  between  the  rich  who  lived  upon  the  fat  of  the 
land  as  collectors  of  taxes,  and  the  impoverished  farmers  crushed 
down  by  the  heavy  exactions.  Only  from  this  standpoint  his 
asperity  toward  the  rich,  who  are  at  the  same  time  the  wicked 
and  nefarious,  can  be  explained. 

"Every  beast  associates  with  its  kind,  but  man  only  with  his  equal. 
What  can  combine  the  wolf  with  the  sheep?    So  is  the  impious  with  the 


76  PROVERBS    OF   BEN   SIR  A. 

poor.  Would  the  hyena  associate  with  the  dog?  So  the  wealthy  with 
the  poor.  The  wild  ass  is  torn  to  pieces  by  the  lion,  so  the  poor  becomes 
the  prey  of  the  rich"  (Sir.  xiii.  18-21). 

The  same  feelings  he 'also  expressed  in  the  following  passage  : 

' '  Who  loves  money  cannot  be  righteous,  and  who  hastens  after  pos- 
sessions is  led  away  from  the  right  path.  Happy  the  rich  whose  hands 
are  clean,  and  who  do  not  cling  to  possessions.  Is  there  such  a  man  ? 
We  will  praise  him  as  happy.  For  he  has  done  much  for  his  people. 
Who  has  been  tried  by  it  and  found  unblemished?  We  will  exalt  him. 
Who  had  the  opportunity  to  deceive  and  did  it  not?  Who  the  means 
to  act  unjustly  and  did  not  do  it?"  (Sir.  xxxi.  10-16.) 

Like  the  upstarts  of  all  ages,  these  opulent  Jews,  in  their  inter- 
course with  foreigners,  wished  to  conceal  their  origin  and  national 
manners.     Against  such  vices  the  moralist  preached  : 

' '  There  is  a  bashf ulness  which  is  praiseworthy  and  another  which  is 
to  be  condemned.  Let  the  judge  be  ashamed  to  decide  unjustly,  the 
counsellor  to  give  wrong  advice.  Let  the  friend  be  ashamed  of  faith- 
lessness, and  the  neighbor  to  trespass  upon  the  boundaries.  .  .  .  But  of 
the  following  be  not  ashamed,  notwithstanding  the  presence  of  any  person. 
To  obey  the  laws  of  God  and  of  His  covenant,  be  never  ashamed  ! " 
(Sir.  xli.  8.) 

With  the  Greek  literature  and  philosophy,  epicurism,  the 
doctrine  of  Epicurus,  the  freest  indulgence  in  gross  pleasures,  was 
carried  into  Palestine.  Its  adherents  asserted,  "God  has  put 
inclinations  and  affections  into  the  human  heart.  If  by  these 
we  are  led  to  sin,  God  becomes  the  creator  of  the  sin."  Against 
these  principles  Sirach  taught : 

"  Do  not  say,  from  God  comes  the  sin  and  the  crime.  Say  not,  He  has 
caused  me  to  fall,  for  He  takes  no  pleasure  in  a  sinful  man.  He  hates 
every  wickedness  and  abomination,  and  He  has  not  given  them  to  those 
that  fear  Him.  He  has  created  man  from  the  beginning  and  left  him  to 
his  free  will.  .  .  .  Fire  and  water  have  been  put  before  thee,  and  thou 
mayest  stretch  out  thy  hand.  Life  and  death  are  given  to  the  choice  of 
man,  select  the  life  and  shun  the  death"  (xv.  11). 

The  strongest  opposition  against  these  newly  accpiired  views 
and  vices  forms  the  theme  of   many  passages  in  the  book  of 


THEIR    MORAL    .VXD    POLITICAL   TENDENCY.  77 

Sirach,  and  with  a  knowledge  of  the  state  of  affairs  in  his  days, 
these  passages  gain  in  clearness  and  force. 

Besides  the  highly  moral  tendency  of  the  Proverbs  of  Sirach, 
there  appears  an  aim  in  the  last  seven  chapters  of  the  book  of  a 
more  political  nature.  The  sons  of  Joseph  divided  the  nation 
into  two  hostile  parties,  of  which  the  one,  having  acquired  the 
supremacy,  was  opposed  to  the  existing  high-priest  Onias,  a 
descendant  of  Simon  the  Just.  This  party  wished  to  replace  him 
by  one  who  was  no  direct  descendant  of  Aaron.  Ben  Sira  devoted 
several  chapters,  proving  by  the  history  of  the  great  men  of  the 
past,  from  Enoch  and  Noah  down  to  Nehemiah,  or  as  the  Greek 
version  calls  it,  by  the  "Song  of  praise  of  the  Fathers,"  that 
obedience  to  the  law  is  the  highest  virtue,  and  that  by  this  law 
the  direct  descendants  of  Aaron  were  exclusively  consecrated  to 
the  service  of  God  and  entitled  to  have  the  high-priests  in  the 
Temple  selected  from  their  midst.  "  God  made  with  Aaron  an 
everlasting  covenant  and  gave  him  the  priesthood  forever." 

In  accordance  with  this  design,  Ben  Sira  extolled  the  merits  of 
Simon  the  Just,  the  most  renowned  high-priest  of  the  Second 
Temple,  whose  memory  was  still  cherished  by  the  people,  while 
some  of  his  descendants  were  persecuted  by  the  ruling  party. 
There  is  no  necessity  for  supposing  (as  many  commentators  did) 
that  the  author  gave  this  lively  description  of  the  activity  of 
Simon  by  personal  observance  and  must  have  been  a  contemporary 
of  that  high-priest.  At  the  time  of  Simon  I.,  to  whom  the 
magnificent  eulogy  towards  the  end  of  the  Book  of  Sirach  refers, 
no  such  state  of  affairs  as  is  there  depicted,  namely,  an  incongru- 
ous feeling  between  the  rich  and  the  poor,  could  have  existed. 

It  has  been  suggested  plausibly  enough  that  the  Book  of  Sirach 
approaches  the  standpoint  of  the  primitive  Sadducees,  as  regards 
its  theology,  its  sacerdotalism,  and  its  want  of  sympathy  with  the 
modern  Soferim.  The  name  of  Ezra  is  significantly  omitted  from 
its  catalogue  of  men  of  worth.  "  It  remains  singular,"  remarks 
Kuenen,  "that  the  man  whom  a  later  generation  compared,  nay 
made  almost  equal,  to  Moses,  is  passed  over  in  silence.  .  .  .  Is  it 
not  reallv  most  natural  that  a  Jesus  ben  Sirach  should  not  feel  svm- 


78  PROVERBS   OF   BEN    SIRA. 

pathy  enough  for  the  first  of  the  Scribes  to  give  him  a  place  of 
honor  in  the  series  of  Israel's  great  men  ?  "  We  may  also  notice 
that  the  resurrection,  a  dogma  very  strongly  pronounced  in  the 
Talmud,  is  in  no  way  mentioned  by  Ben  Sira,  but  only  the 
immortality  of  the  soul. 

The  still  extant  Syriac  translation  of  tbe  Proverbs  of  Siraclu 
compared  with  the  Greek,  appears  much  interpolated  and  changed, 
and  evinces  the  fact  that  the  translator  has  taken  great  liberties 
with  the  original  text ;  but  he  undoubtedly  had  the  Hebrew 
version  before  him,  as  appears  from  a  comparison  with  the  Greek. 

The  Syriac  may  be  of  great  service  in  correcting  numerous 
mistakes  of  the  Greek  version,  where  the  Alexandrian  translator 
misunderstood  the  Hebrew  text,  and  revealed  a  very  limited 
knowledge  of  the  Hebrew  language. 

3.    Proverbs  of  Ben  Sira  in  Talmud  and  Midrash. 

In  Talmud  and  Midrash  there  are  more  than  forty  verses 
either  anonymously  or  expressly  quoted  from  Ben  Sira,  which 
proves  that  the  ancient  Rabbis  were  very  familiar  with  the  con- 
tents of  the  work. 

A  large  number  of  them  appear  in  the  Greek  or  Syriac  transla- 
tion, or  in  both;  while  some,  as  distinctly  quoted  from  Ben  Sira, 
have  entirely  disappeared  from  the  translations. 

(1.)  In  Talmud  Sanhedrin  (100,  b;  compare  Yebamoth  63,  a) 
the  following  sentences,  as  selected  from  tbe  Proverbs  of  Ben 
Sira,  are  quoted  as  examples  of  good  moral  principles.  The  last 
two  verses  are  not  to  be  found  in  any  translation,  and  the  closing 
words  are  partly  taken  from  Jeremiah  (v.  27): 

(xxvi.)    A  good  mate  is  a  gift  through  life 

To  him  that  fears  th'  Eternal  One  ; 
Like  leprous  plague  the  wicked  wife 
Compels  her  spouse  his  home  to  shun. 

A  beauteous  wife,  her  lord's  delight 

Prolongs  his  days  to  twofold  length. 
From  beauty  strange,  guard  well  thy  sight, 

Her  nets  may  snare  thee,  'spite  thy  strength. 


THEIR    PECULIAR   CHARACTERISTICS.  79 

(ix.  8.)    Do  not  the  social  beaker  quaff 

With  him  whose  spouse's  charm  thou  know'st, 
(Pi-ot.  vii.  26.)    Though  strong  men  at  temptation  laugh, 

To  shame  does  beauty  put  their  boast. 

Those  that  to  sell  her  trinkets  came, 

Have  been  by  beauty  brought  to  wrong ; 
From  smallest  spark  can  spring  a  flame, 

And  guiles  encaged  all  houses  throng. 

(2.)  The  recommendation  to  apply  in  sickness  to  a  physician 
is  a  peculiar  characteristic  of  the  Book  of  Sirach,  as  no  similar 
idea  appears  in  the  Bible;  but,  on  the  contrary,  a  passage  in  the 
Second  Book  of  Chronicles  (xvi.  12)  would  seem  to  express 
opposition  to  the  employment  of  a  physician.  Nevertheless,  the 
Talmud  indorsed  the  advice,  and  gave  as  authority  the  Biblical 
passage,  "he  shall  cause  him  to  be  thoroughly  healed"  (Ex. 
xxi.  19). 

The   following  lines  from  Ben  Sira  are  cpioted  in  Shemot  B. 

(106,  b). 

' '  Thy  doctor  honor  long  before 

Necessity  calls  him  to  thy  door/' 

(3.)  Among  the  passages  cpioted  in  Talmud  Sanhedrin  (100,  b) 
the  following  also  appears: 

' '  Do  not  worry  for  to-morrow, 

As  thou  dost  not  know  the  sorrow 

"Which  to-day  bears  in  its  train. 

Likely  fate  may  come  behind  thee, 

And  to-morrow  will  not  find  thee — 

Then  thy  worry  was  in  vain  ! " 

(4.)  Closely  connected  with  the  advice  to  employ  a  physician 
is  the  following  (Bereshit  K.  8,  a): 

' '  God  causes  the  remedial  herbs  to  grow  up  from  the  ground ; 
they  become  a  healing  cause  in  the  hands  of  the  physicians,  and 
from  them  the  druggist  prepai'es  the  remedies." 

(5.)  Somewhat  different  from  the  following  Talmuclical  quota- 
tion which,  however,  appears  anonymously,  is  the  Syriac  text: 
"The  following  three  I  hate;  they  are  loathsome  to  my  soul:  a 


80  PKOVERBS   OF    BEN    SIRA. 

proud  poor  man;  a  rich  man  full  of  deceit,  and  a  gray-headed 
man,  ignorant  and  thoughtless"  (xxv.  3,  4).      (Pesachim  113.) 

"Four  things  are  inconsistent  with  reason:  a  poor  man  who  is 
proud  ;  a  rich  man  who  hides  his  wealth  (and  lives  poorly);  an  adult- 
erous grayhaired  man  ;  and  a  president  of  a  community,  who  vainly 
raises  himself  "  (who  in  time  of  need  cannot  help  the  community). 

(6.)  The  quotation  next  in  order  is  of  the  highest  import. 
Ben  Sira  directed  these  verses,  and  those  following  them  in  the 
chapter  from  which  they  are  quoted,  against  the  tendencies  of 
the  Greek  philosophy  which  misled  many  Jews.  The  Talmud 
quotes  them  as  a  warning  to  those  who  engage  in  speculations 
concerning  celestial  affairs  (Chagiga  16,  a;  Beresh.  K.  6,  b): 

"What  is  too  great  for  thee,  try  not  to  penetrate, 
What  seems  too  strong,  that  do  not  seek, 
About  the  mystical,  do  not  interrogate, 

And  of  hidden  things,  thou  may'st  not  speak. 
On  secrets  never  let  thy  mind  be  bent, 
Consider  that,  to  which  thou  hast  consent. 

(7.)  A  proverb  quoted  as  uttered  by  Ben  Sira  (Tanchuma, 
Vayishlach): 

"Before  thou  vowest,  consider  well  the  significance  of  thy  vow  " 
(xviii.  23). 

(8.)  The  primitive  Christians  despised  riches,  and  lived  in 
poverty  and  humility.  It  seems  that  against  their  teachings  and 
examples  Rab  quoted  the  following  passage  (Erubin  54). 

"  My  son  !  If  thou  hast  wealth,  enjoy  it : 
There  is  no  pleasure  in  the  grave  ; 
And  sudden  comes  the  deadly  wave. 
Shouldst  thou  say  :  I'll  leave  it  to  my  heirs, 
Who  doth  tell  thee  of  the  grave's  affairs  ? — 
As  the  herbs  of  the  field,  some  wither,  some  bloom, 
So  some  men  in  joy  exist,  others  in  gloom." 

(9.)  A  warning  not  to  pray,  when  our  mind  is  distracted,  is 
the  following  (Erubin  05,  a): 

(vii.  10).  "  When  in  distress,  pray  not." 


A    GLOOM \    PICTURE.  81 

(10.)  In  the  following,  the  possession  of  a  daughter  is  depicted 
m  rather  gloomy  colors.  We  do  not  meet  with  similar  views  in 
the  Bible.  It  appears  that,  in  the  peculiar  state  of  affairs  at  the 
time  of  Ben  Sira,  when  with  Greek  manners  dissolute  habits 
became  predominant,  and  the  national  regard  for  chastity  declined, 
the  author  expressed  these  views  in  a  gloomy  mood. — The  last 
sentence,  "When  she  is  old,  she  might  indulge  in  sorcery,"  does 
not  appear  in  Sirach.  Sorcery  was  a  vice  which,  in  spite  of  the 
deep  moral  sense  which  prevailed  at  the  time  of  the  first  century 
before  the  Christian  era,  had  made  great  headway  amongst  the 
lower  classes  of  the  Jews.  R.  Simon  ben  Yochai  complained: 
"In  former  times,  the  daughters  of  Israel  shunned  sorcery;  but 
now  they  are  addicted  to  it "  (Erubin  64,  a).  A  later  teacher,  Iv. 
Josa,  even  complained  "that  the  great  majority  of  the  daughters 
of  Israel  are  addicted  to  sorcery"  (Berachot  53).  But  if  we 
remember  that  sorcery  and  augury  were  the  moral  pests  of  all 
antiquity,  and  even  reigned  supreme  in  the  philosophical  schools 
of  Alexandria,  we  will  not  be  surprised  to  find  it  prevailing  also 
in  Judea: 

' '  A  daughter  is  a  treasure  vain 

To  the  father's  feeling  heart ; 
Care  for  her  disturbs  his  brain, 

Breaks  his  sleep  with  anxious  start. 
Is  she  young,  she  may  be  led  astray  ; 
If  grown,  she  may  be  by  misfortune  pressed  ; 
And  if  full  grown,  she  may  unmarried  rest. 
When  married,  she  may  childless  be  ; 
If  old,  engage  in  sorcery." 

(11.)  In  the  following,  high  regard  for  exterior  appearance  is 
taught.  In  several  other  passages  of  the  Talmud,  special  care 
for  outward  appearance  is  recommended  (Sabbath  113,  b;  Chulin 
84,  b). 

"The  glory  of  God  is  man, 
The  glory  of  man,  his  attire." 

(12.)  The  following  is  a  beautiful  parable  against  quarrelling; 
6 


82  PKOVEKBS   OF   BEN    SIEA. 

this  practice  generally  has  a  feeble  beginning,  but  by  indulgence 
it  grows  to  be  a  flame : 

"  If  on  a  burning  coal  thou  blow, 
It  will  all  the  better  glow  ; 
If  thou  dost  upon  it  spit, 
Thou  wilt  sure  extinguish  it." 

(13.)  The  following  corresponds  with  the  Syriac  version  (xxix. 
30): 

"All  I  weighed  on  scales,  but  found  nothing  lighter  than  bran, 
lighter  than  bran,  however,  is  a  son-in-law  living  in  his  father-in- 
law's  house  ;  lighter  still,  a  guest  introduced  by  another  guest,  and 
still  lighter,  he  who  answers  before  he  has  heard  the  question." 

(14.)  A  practical  observation  is  the  following: 

"A  person  dependent  on  the  table  of  another  has  the  world  dark- 
ened." 

(15.)  A  passage  in  the  Proverbs  of  Solomon,  "  Evil  to  the  poor 
are  the  days  he  must  endure"  (Prov.  xv.  16)  is  further  extended 
and  quoted  as  taken  from  Ben  Sira.  The  whole  passage  is,  how- 
ever, wanting  in  the  Greek  and  Syriac  versions. 

"Evil  to  the  poor 
Are  the  days  he  must  endure  ! 
Also  his  nights  ! 
On  his  roof — the  lowest  of  all, 
The  rain  from  all  the  others  fall  ; 
His  vineyard 's  on  the  heights, 
And  its  ground  does  flow 
Down  to  the  ones  below. " 

(16.)  A  wicked  wife  is  a  misfortune  in  every  age,  and  was 
often  referred  to  in  the  Talmud,  just  as  a  happy  family  life  was 
considered  the  keystone  of  genuine  morality. 

No  pain  like  the  pain  of  the  mind, 
No  evil  like  a  wife  unkind. 

(17.)  In  a  conversation  quoted  in  Baba  Kama  (92,  b)  Baba 
asked  Baba  bar  Marah  for  the  origin  of  the  popular  proverb,  "A 


EECALL   OF   SIMON    BEN    SHETACH.  83 

poor  palm-tree  generally  grows  among  the  forest-trees,"  to  which 
the  latter  replied,  "It  is  founded  on  passages  in  the  Torah,  in 
the  Prophets,  and  in  the  Scriptures.  In  the  Torah  is  reported, 
'Esau  went  unto  Ismael'  (Gen.  xxxviii.  9);  in  the  Prophets, 
'  Jephtha  combined  with  vain  men,'  and  in  the  Scriptures,  '  Every 
bird  abides  with  its  kind,  and  man  also  seeks  his  equal.'"  It  is 
remarkable  that  this  sage  enumerates  the  Book  of  Sirach  as  a 
part  of  the  Scriptures. 

"As  each  bird  doth  seek  its  kind, 
So  should  man  his  equal  find."* 

(18.)  In  Bereshit  R.  (64,  b). 

The  heart  of  man  doth  change  his  face, 
For  good  as  well  as  for  disgrace. 

(19.)  In  Talmud  Sanhedrin  (100,  b).  It  is  very  similar 
to  Micah  (vii.  5):  "  Trust  ye  not  in  a  friend,  put  ye  notconfldence 
in  a  guide;  keep  the  doors  of  thy  mouth  from  her  that  lieth  on 
thy  bosom."  The  last  part  is  quoted  by  the  Talmud  in  connec- 
tion with  the  above  passage. 

"  Out  of  thy  house  keep  many  away; 
Bring  not  every  one  into  thy  house, 
Though  thousands  do  thy  friendship  seek. 
To  none  but  one  thy  secret  speak. 
Even  from  her  that  lieth  at  thy  bosom, 
Keep  shut  the  doors  of  thy  mouth." 

(20. )  King  Alexander  Janai,  third  son  of  John  Hyrcanus,  and 
successor  of  his  brother  Aristobul  I.  (105-79  b.  c.)  recalled 
Simon  ben  Shetach  from  exile,  and  had  him  placed  between 
himself,  the  king,  and  the  queen  (supj)osed  to  have  been  the 
sister  of  Simon).  On  that  occasion,  referring  to  his  knowledge 
of  the  Law,  Simon  said  (Berachot  48,  a): 

"  Prize  it  highly,  it  will  raise  thee, 
Thou  shalt  be  'mid  princes  set." 

(21.)  There  is  no  corresponding  passage  in  our  Book  of  Sirach 
*  Similar  to  the  English  proverb  :  Birds  of  a  feather  flock  together. 


84  PEOVERBS    OF   BEN   SIRA. 

to  the  following,  in  the  form  in  which  it  appeared  in  the  Talmud 
(Bezah  32,  b). 

"  The  lives  of  three  cannot  be  called  real  living:  those  that  rely  for 
their  meals  upon  others;  those  who  are  ruled  by  their  wives  ;  and 
those  who  are  subjected  to  continual  bodily  sufferings. 

(22.)  The  following  appears  in  a  somewhat  more  extended 
form  in  the  Talmud  (Mdah  16,  b),  and  is  quoted  as  a  saying 
from  Ben  Sira,  but  does  not  appear  in  the  versions. 

"The  following  three  kinds  of  men  I  hate;  a  prince,  spending  his 
time  in  taverns;  one  who  takes  his  seat  upon  the  heights  of  the  city 
(a  proud  man);  and  one  who  suddenly  enters  the  house  of  his  neigh- 
bor (without  knocking  at  the  door)." 

(23.)  The  following  also  appears  as  taken  from  Ben  Sira. 

"  Listen,  sir,  to  my  words,  and  give  ear  to  my  utterances.  Keep 
from  strifes  with  thy  neighbor,  and  if  thou  seest  that  thy  friend 
does  anything  wrong,  guard  thy  tongue  from  gossip.'' 

(24.)  Nissim  ben  Jacob  (born  at  Kairvan  in  Tunis  before  1000, 
died  about  1040),  has  in  his  work  Chibur  yaphe  (25,  2)  preserved 
a  Hebrew  fragment  of  the  Book  of  Sirach,  which  appears  in  the 
fifth  chapter  (v.  5). 

' '  Do  not  rely  upon  forgiveness  when  adding  sin  upon  sin,  saying, 
His  mercy  is  great  and  He  will  pardon  me.  His  mercy  is  great,  but 
also  His  anger,  and  He  punished  the  wicked  by  His  power." 

4.  Alphabet  of  Ben  Sira. 

A  small  collection  of  proverbs  ktd  pi  nit  3  ash  a  "Alphabet 
of  Ben  Sira,"  contains  a  twofold  series  of  ethical  sentences,  Ara- 
maic and  Hebrew  arranged  in  the  order  of  the  alphabet.  Some 
of  them  may  have  been  written  by  Ben  Sira,  as  they  are  quoted 
in  the  Talmud,  others  are  so  insignificant  and  meaningless  that 
the  author  of  the  Book  of  Sirach  could  not  have  composed  them. 
These  proverbs  are  accompanied  by  an  introduction  and  a  com- 
mentary. The  introduction  is  fictitious  and  of  little  value.  The 
commentary  is  probably  also  the  work  of  the  compiler  of  the 
proverbs,  and   contains  for  their  explanation  different  passages 


THE    MAN    AND   THE    LION".  85 

of  the  Talmud  and  some  short  stories.  Judged  by  the  language 
used  in  the  commentary,  the  work  was  written  soon  after  the 
close  of  the  Talmud. 

We  selected  from  this  collection  the  following  sentences,  as  of 
some  ethical  value. 

a.  Let  not  thy  heart  with  cares  be  rilled, 
For  care  has  many  a  victim  killed. 

b.  Gold  must  be  beaten, 

A  boy  needs  chastisement, 
e.  Do  no  favors  to  the  wicked, 

Only  evil  comes  therefrom. 

This  passage  is  very  often  quoted  in  the  Midrashim,  in  connec- 
tion with  the  following  fable,  which  originally  seems  to  have 
referred  to  an  actual  event. 

The  Man  and  the  Lion. 

"Once  a  man  journeyed  from  Palestine  to  Babylon.  While 
at  his  meal,  he  noticed  a  fierce  strife  between  two  birds,  which 
ended  in  the  apparent  death  of  one.  When  the  other,  however, 
noticed  that  its  companion  was  dead,  it  hastened  to  search  for  a 
special  kind  of  herbs,  which  it  brought  and  laid  on  the  beak  of 
the  corpse,  and  soon  thereafter,  the  dead  bird  revived.  The 
traveller  saw  this  with  astonishment  and  procured  a  sample  of  the 
herb.  On  journeying  farther,  he  met  with  a  dead  lion,  and  con- 
cluded to  make  experiments  upon  him.  He  succeeded  in 
reviving  the  lion.  But  no  sooner  had  the  latter  regained  his  for- 
mer strength  than  he  tore  his  benefactor  to  pieces."  A  passage 
similar  to  the  above  appears  also  in  the  Greek  version  (xii.  5). 

Here  are  examples  of  some  further  sentences: 

d.  For  the  wise  a  wink, 
For  the  fool  a  kick. 

e.  Who  does  honor  to  his  scorner, 
Is  to  be  esteemed  an  ass! 

/.  A    burning    candle    may    destroy    many    blooming 

fields  (Accusation  produces  many  misfortunes). 
g.  An  old  man  in  thn  house  is  a  good  omen. 


86  PROVERBS   OF   BEN    SIRA. 

(A  contrary  view  is  expressed  in  the  Talmud,  "An  old  man  is 
a  terror  in  the  house,  an  old  woman  a  pearl  for  the  family." 
(Erachin  19.) 

h.  With  the  goods  near   by,  the   owner   derives    profit 

from  them,  with  them  at  great  distance,  they  con- 
sume the  owner. 

i.  An  old  friend  do  not  deny. 

A  similar  passage  appears  in  the  Book  of  Sirach  (ix.  14). 

k.  Thou  mayest  listen  to  sixty  consellors, 

But  be  guided  by  thine  own  conviction. 


RIDDLES   AS   A    DISPLAY    OF   INGENUITY.  87 


CHAPTER   IX. 

RIDDLES  IN  THE  TALMUD. 

If  by  riddles  we  are  to  understand  something  proposed  for 
conjecture,  or  that  is  to  be  solved  by  conjecture,  as  defined  by 
Webster,  then  a  large  part  of  the  Talmud  would  come  under  that 
heading.  But  we  shall  limit  its  meaning  for  our  purpose  to  such 
comparative  trifles  which,  when  the  mind  was  relaxed  from 
graver  pursuits,  were  indulged  in  simply  for  the  display  of 
ingenuity.  The  oldest  post-biblical  production  in  that  line  is 
the  following: 

"  What  animal  has  one  voice  while  it  lives,  and  seven  voices  after  its 
death  ?  " 

"We  would  be  very  likely  at  a  loss  to  solve  this  question;  but 
happily  the  solution  is  given  by  the  .answer:  "It  is  an  ibex. 
His  two  horns  give  two  cornets,  his  two  legs  two  pipes,  his  skiu 
is  used  for  the  drum,  his  large  intestines  as  strings  for  the  lute, 
while  the  smaller  ones  are  utilized  for  the  harp.*' 

This  riddle  is  given  in  Treatise  Kinim  of  the  Mishnah  (at  the 
end),  where  several  very  improbable  hypothetical  questions  for 
the  mere  display  of  dialectics  are  given. 

Another  riddle  of  the  time  of  the  Tanaim  is  especially  remark- 
able for  its  Hebrew  rejuvenated  form  and  original  purity  and 
force.  At  a  festive  gathering,  Bar  Kappora,  a  disciple  of  R. 
Judah,  prompted  Bar  Elaza,  the  rich  but  ignorant  son-in-law  of 
the  patriarch,  to  propound  the  following  question: 

High  from  heav'n  her  eye  looks  down, 
Constant  strife  excites  her  frown, 
Winged  beings  shun  her  sight, 
She  puts  the  youth  to  instant  flight. 


88  RIDDLES   I1ST   THE   TALMUD. 

The  aged,  too,  her  looks  do  scout ; 
Oh  !  Oh  !  the  fugitive  cries  out. 
And  by  her  snares  whoe'er  is  lured, 
Can  never  more  from  sin  be  cured. 

(Jer.  Moed  Katon  3,  1.) 

Many  solutions  have  been  offered  to  this  riddle,  one  by  Eapo- 
port,  who  supposed  that  Venus  was  meant.  Graetz  applied  it  to 
Eabbi's  principal  bond-woman  and  housekeeper  (pn  m  NnOK), 
who  exercised  tyranny  over  young  and  old,  and  the  disciples  in 
particular.  * 

Another  solution  is  the  following:  Some  time  previously,  after 
the  destruction  of  the  Second  Temple,  the  Jewish  authorities, 
deprived  of  the  privilege  to  punish  those  that  acted  against  their 
edicts,  introduced  excommunication;  and  all  those  who  refused 
obedience  to  the  decrees  and  ordinances  of  the  constituted  eccle- 
siastical authorities  were  subjected  to  the  iron  ban.  This  punish- 
ment was  at  first  extended  even  to  very  prominent  men,  so  that 
at  a  later  period,  before  the  time  of  E.  Judah,  a  limit  to  the 
exercise  of  that  power  was  instituted,  and  no  member  of  the  high 
counsel  (Saken)  could  be  excommunicated.  E.  Judah  repeatedly 
made  use  of  this  power,  and  was  at  one  time  inclined  to  direct  it 
against  E.  Meir,  second  Vice-President  (Cbacham)  of  the  Syn- 
hedrin  (Megillah  18,  b),  and  it  was  only  by  the  protest  of  Bar 
Kappora  that  the  punishment  was  not  carried  into  effect  (Jer. 
Moed  Katon  3,  1).  The  above  riddle,  which  might  be  taken  as 
a  fine  satire  on  that  power,  is  supposed  to  express  his  opposition 
to  excommunication.  The  old  (Sakenim)  were  exempted;  it  was 
only  for  the  young  men  who,  to  escape  such  punishment,  would 
sometimes  even  leave  Judaism. 

In  Midrash  Echa,  among  other  witticisms  and  remarks  related 
from  the  former  social  life  at  Jerusalem,  the  following  riddle  is 
proposed: 

"  Nine  go  out,  eight  come  in  ;  two  pour  out,  one  drinks  ;  and  four  and 
twenty  wait  upon  him." 

*Graetz's  History  of  the  Jews,  iv.,  p.  158  (American  ed.). 


THE    QUEEN    OF    SHEBA    AND    SOLOMON'.  89 

The  solution  to  that  riddle:  "The  nine  that  go  out  embrace 
the  period  of  man's  embryo  life;  the  eight  which  come  in,  the 
eighth  day  of  circumcision ;  the  two  that  pour  out,  are  the  two 
living  fountains  which  God  has  provided  for  the  nourishment  of 
infants;  the  one  that  drinks,  is  the  child  that  sucks;  the  twenty- 
four  waiters  are  the  four  and  twenty  months  allowed  for  between 
its  birth  and  its  weaning." 

According  to  Biblical  account  (1  Kings  x.  1),  the  queen  of 
Sheba,  who  had  heard  of  the  fame  of  Solomon,  came  to  Jerusalem 
to  propound  to  him  difficult  questions.  The  Targum  Sheni,  to 
the  Book  of  Esther,  contains  some  riddles  which  are  put  into 
the  mouth  of  that  queen ;  and,  at  the  time  of  composition  of 
that  Targum,  must  have  been  considered  as  the  most  difficult 
extant. 

The  queen  addressed  Solomon:  "  May  I  lay  three  riddles  before 
thee?  By  their  solution  I  will  know  that  thou  art  a  man  of 
wisdom  and  knowledge;  if  thou  art  unable  to  solve  them,  thou 
art  not  wiser  than  others  " : 

'VA  wooden  well  you  oft  have  seen, 
An  iron  bucket  is  sunk  therein 
To  draw  a  stone  out  of  the  well ; 
The  stone  in  water  is  soaked  therein." 

"A  paint-box"  (used  for  painting  the  eyes),  Solomon  the  Wise 
said. 

And  Sheba's  queen  commenced  anew: 

"  Dost  thou  know  what  from  earthly  dust  does  come,  and  earthly  dust 
as  food  does  take?  Like  water  is  it  poured  out,  and  penetrates  the 
house?" 

"It  is  naphtha,"  the  wise  king  quickly  replied. 
And  Sheba's  queen  anew  commenced: 

"  When  there  arises  a  furious  gale, 
What  is  it  which  raises  a  pitiful  wail, 
And  then  like  the  bulrushes  bends  down  its  head  ? 
As  a  gift  it  is  given  to  honor  the  dead, 
Even  those  who  by  it  to  dishonor  were  led ; 


90  KIDDLES   IN"   THE   TALMUD. 

It  smothers  the  sinner,  the  rich  it  begirds  ; 
Gives  death  to  the  fishes,  but  joy  to  the  birds." 

"It  is  the  flax,"  said  Solomon  the  Wise. 

The  queen  spoke  then :  "  I  believed  not  the  things  I  heard  of 
thee,  until  I  came  and  beheld  with  mine  own  eyes." 

Eiddles  of  another  class  are  practical  observations  or  moral 
aphorisms,  clothed  in  enigmatical  language: 

:  nvin  vb*,  vbiai  mb  11  r6no  "nn  paa 

"Two  are  better  than  three,  alas  !  For  the  one  disappears,  never  to 
return  ! "  (Sabbat  152). 

The  solution  of  this  sentence  is:  Youth,  when  man  walks  on 
two  legs,  is  to  be  preferred  to  old  age,  when  he  needs  a  staff  for 
support.     That  which  never  returns,  is  Youth. 

This  riddle  is  similar  to  the  one  jn-oposed  by  the  Sphinx  of 
Greek  mythology.  It  was  said  that  this  fabled  monster  was  sent 
into  the  neighborhood  of  Thebes  by  Juno,  who  wished  to  punish 
the  family  of  Cadmus.  It  was  stated  that  he  laid  this  part  of 
Boeotia  under  continual  alarms,  by  proposing  enigmas,  and 
devouring  the  inhabitants,  if  unable  to  explain  them. 

At  last  Creon  promised  his  crown  and  Iocasta  to  him  who 
succeeded  in  explaining  a  certain  enigma.  The  enigma  proposed 
was  this: 

"What  animal  in  the  morning  walks  on  four  feet,  at  noon  on  two, 
and  in  the  evening  on  three?  " 

CEdipus  solved  the  enigma;  on  which  the  monster  dashed  his 
head  against  the  rock,  and  perished. 

The  paradoxical  proposition,  "two  are  better  than  three,"  seems 
to  have  been  a  proverbial  expression;  as,  in  general,  the  ancient 
sages  liked  to  refer  to  old  age  in  enigmatical  language. 

An  emperor  (Hadrian)  asked  Joshua  ben  Chananya  why  he 
did  not  appear  at  Be  Abedan;*  to  which  he  replied: 

*  According  to  Rashi  and  Aruch,  it  was  a  building  where  learned 
debates  and  gymnastic  exhibitions  were  held  (compare  Sabbath  116,  a). 


THE    READY    WIT    OF    RABBI    AZARIAH.  91 

"The  mountain  is  capped  by  snow  (my  head  turned  white),  the  sur- 
roundings are  bald,  the  dogs  bark  not  (the  voice  became  weak),  the 
millers  grind  no  more  (the  teeth  refuse  their  service)."    (Sabbath  152,  a.) 

When  R.  Simon  ben  Chalafta  neglected  to  call  upon  Rabbi,  as 
he  was  wont  to  do,  and  the  latter  complained  about  it,  R.  Simon 
excused  himself: 

'  •  The  rocks  became  high  (I  became  old),  those  that  were  near  are  at  a 
distance  (the  eyes  have  grown  dim),  two  turned  unto  three  (I  need  a 
staff  to  walk),  and  the  mediator  of  peace  (manly  energy)  is  destroyed  !  " 
(Sabbath  152,  Vayikra  R.  139.) 

As  a  witty  improvisator  of  enigmatical  aphorisms,  a  Rabbi 
Azariah  is  introduced  in  the  Talmud  (Menachot  52,  a).  He 
is  reported  as  a  tenth  descendant  of  R.  Elieser  ben  Azariah,  who, 
in  his  turn,  is  said  to  have  been  a  tenth  descendant  of  Ezra,  the 
Scribe. 

R.  Azariah  asserted: — D'TINI!  Dn'INO  Dnn^b  jn^l  TIN  IOC 

"The  illustrious  came,  and  led  the  illustrious  from  the  illustrious  to 
the  illustrious." . 

The  illustrious  who  came  is  God,  "illustrious  on  high  is  the 
Lord"  (Ps.  xciii.  1). 

The  illustrious  who  were  led,  are  the  Israelites:  "  and  the  illus- 
trious in  whom  is  all  my  pleasure  "  (Ps.  xvi.  3). 

The  illustrious  from  whom  the  Israelites  were  brought  forward 
were  the  Egyptians:  "They  sank  as  lead  in  the  waters,  the  illus- 
trious "  *  (Ex.  xv.  10). 

The  illustrious  to  which  the  Israelites  were  led  was  the  sea: 
"  the  mighty  waves  of  the  sea"  (Ps.  xciii.  4). 

Another  of  his  impromptus: 

:ff"T«T  13  nDDJTl  TT  f>B>  lp^TD  TT^  TT  n»*l  TT  ]2  TT  N3S 
' '  The  beloved  son  of  the  beloved  came  and  built  a  lovely  structure  to 
the  beloved  in  the  portion  of  the  beloved,  to  atone  for  the  beloved." 


*  This  peculiar  conception  of  the  passage  in  question  is  in  full  accord- 
ance with  the  Agadic  manner  to  translate  a  verse,  in  order  to  illustrate 
certain  assertions.  It  may  be  noticed  that  the  Massoretic  accents  would 
even  favor  that  translation. 


92  KIDDLES    IN   THE   TALMUD. 

The  beloved  who  came  is  Solomon,  as  it  is  written,  "Nathan 
the  prophet  gave  to  Solomon  the  name  Jedidiali,  beloved  of  Jali 
(2  Sam.  xii.  25). 

A  descendant  of  the  beloved,  Abraham,  of  whom  it  is  said: 
"What  does  my  beloved  wish  in  my  house?"*  (Jer.  xi.  15). 

The  lovely  structure  is  the  Temple,  "How  amiable  are  thy 
tabernacles,  0  Lord  of  hosts! "  (Ps.  lxxxiv.  2). 

The  beloved  in  whose  honor  it  was  built,  is  God,  "I  will  sing 
to  my  well  beloved!  "  (Is.  v.  1). 

In  the  portion  of  the  beloved,  in  the  portion  of  Benjamin, 
"And  of  Benjamin  he  said,  the  beloved  of  the  Lord  "  (Deut. 
xxxiii.  12). 

And  those  atoned  for  in  the  Temple,  are  the  Israelites,  as  it  is 
said:  "  I  have  given  the  dearly  beloved  of  my  soul  into  the  hand 
of  her  enemies  "  (Jer.  xii.  7). 

Another  impromptu : 

D'mt^  sitae  y\2  ^op"n  mtt  kt 

•'The  virtuous  came  and  received  the  excellent  gift  from  the  Supreme 
Good  One  for  the  virtuous  people."  f 

The  virtuous  who  came  is  Moses,  ' '  She  saw  him  and  he  was 
goodly  "  (Ex.  ii.  2). 

He  received  the  excellent  gift,  the  Law,  of  which  it  is  written,. 
"  for  I  give  you  a  good  doctrine,  forsake  ye  not  my  law  "  (Prov. 
iv.  2). 

From  the  Supreme  Good  One,  "the  Lord  is  good  to  all" 
(Ps.  civ.  10). 

The  virtuous  people,  the  Israelites,  as  it  is  written:  "Do 
good,  0  Lord,  unto  those  who  be  good "  (the  Israelites)  (Ps. 
cxxv.  4). 

A  fourth  impromptu: 


*  These  words  were,  according  to  the  Agadah  (Menachot  53,  b)  ad- 
dressed by  God  to  Abraham,  who  appeared  before  his  throne  to  plead 
against  the  destruction  of  the  Temple. 

1 21L2  is  good  in  the  widest  sense,  and  therefore,  expresses  not  only 
fine,  fair,  pleasant,  fertile,  etc.,  but  also  Cheerful,  virtuous,  prosperous, 
etc. 


JONATHAN    BEN    ECHMANI    AND    JUDAH    BEN    GHERIM.        93 

:  II  DJ&  HTQ  HNT  i>3p*l  HI  KIT 
"  That  one  came  and  received  this  from  this  one  for  that  nation  (as  a 
gift)."  * 

The  one  who  came,  Moses,  is  referred  to:  "for  this  Moses,  the 
man  that  brought  ns  up  "  (Ex.  xxxii.  1). 

He  received  this,  the  law,  referred  to:  "  This  is  the  law,  which 
Moses  put  before  the  children  of  Israel." 

This  is  also  used  in  reference  to  God:  "  This  is  my  God  and 
him  I  glorify"  (Ex.  xv.  2). 

In  reference  to  Israel,  "  This  people  have  I  found  for  myself, 
they  shall  show  forth  my  praise"  (Is.  xliii.  21). 

The  next  is  an  enigmatical  sentence,  expressed  on  taking  leave 
from  a  friend. 

On  a  visit  to  their  teacher,  E.  Simon  ben  Yochai,  two  scholars, 
E.  Jonathan  ben  Echmani  and  E.  Judah  ben  Gherim,  were  re- 
quested at  their  departure  to  bless  the  son  of  the  Eabbi,  which 
they  did  in  the  following  words: 

"May  God  grant  that  thou  so  west  and  never  reapest. 
Bring  in  and  never  carry  out. 
Bring  out  never  to  return; 
That  thy  house  may  be  disturbed, 
And  that  thou  livest  therein  as  a  guest; 
Thy  meals  be  disturbed  and  thy  life  never  renewed  !  " 

The  son,  under  the  impression  that  he  heard  maledictions, 
hastened  to  his  father,  who  pacified  him  and  said,  "  Thou  art  bless- 
ed, not  cursed,  my  son!  Understand  well  the  words  of  the  wise. 
The  first  expresses  the  wish  that  thou  mayest  raise  children  and 
not  bury  them;  the  second,  that  the  wives  of  thy  sons  may  en- 
large the  family  circle,  never  to  return  to  their  former  homes; 
the  third,  that  thy  married  daughters  may  never  come  back  as 
widows  or  divorced  wives,  to  live  with  thee  again;  the  fourth,  that 
thou  mayest  consider  this  life  as  an  antechamber  to  the  next;  the 
fifth  is  a  picture  of  a  blessed  home,  where  children  frolic  and  the 
husband  clings  to  the  wife  of  his  first  love  "  (Moed  Katon  9,  b). 

*  The  demonstrative  pronoun  this  is  in  masculine  nh  feminine  nxf. 
while  "\f  sometimes  expressing  this  is  common  to  both  genders. 


94  RIDDLES    IK   THE   TALMUD. 

There  also  appear  in  the  Talmud  sportive  compositions  called 
iiKon  ]1B>S  (weU  to  distinguish  from  d^SH  p&>6)  of  a  peculiar  enig- 
matical character,  in  which  the  speaker  conceals  his  real  views 
under  a  poetical  or  quaint  cover,  which  would  he  in  most  cases 
entirely  enigmatical,  if  the  solution  did  not  also  appear.  The 
following  belong  to  this  class : 

.ttok  rvby  Tiers*  n^inn  rvbaN  Ttnta  rvpDx  "mriKs  ms  x~io 

"  Stew  fish  with  its  brother,  bring  it  to  its  father,  eat  it  with  its  son, 
and  drink  after  it  its  father  [Moed  Katon  11,  a].  [The  father  of  the  fish 
is  water;  its  brother,  salt;  its  son,  the  juice  of  the  fish.] 

Another  enigmatical  sentence  which  finds  its  solution  by 
translating  it  from  Hebrew  into  Aramaic,  is  the  following, 

(Erubin  53,  b).  pDO  "1^3  t3Q^»3  TltT  "6  WJ) 

which,  translated  into  our  vernacular,  literally  means:  "Make 
for  me  a  steer  as  usual  with  a  mountain  of  the  poor,"  but  trans- 
lated into  Aramaic,  it  gives:  Prepare  forme  ^mra  pin  "  scallion 
[Allium  Ascalonicum,  allied  to  garlic  and  onion,  growing  in  Pales- 
tine] with  mustard." 
Another, 

pons!?-  ljrnrw 

.n^ya  too  "b  lB'jn 

"  Give  the  coals  an  orange  color; 

Like  the  expanse  of  heaven 

Let  the  glimrner  of  gold  appear, 

And  prepare  me  two  heralds  of  the  darkness."    (Erubin  53,  b.) 

The  plain  meaning  of  this  is,  "Blow  the  coal  to  a  red  heat, 
spread  these  gold-colored  coals  upon  the  grate  like  the  stars  of 
heaven,  and  roast  for  me  two  roosters,  which  recall  the  night 
watchers. " 

Once  the  rabbis  addressed  E.  Abahuh, 

pB5f  ^yba  13-1  pTi  ujiasn 

"  Eeveal  to  us  where  E.  Alai  keeps  himself  hidden."  He  re- 
plied : 


akiba's  inexplicable  hilarity.  95 

invj?:m  mvy  minx  n^inx  mjm  ]^>y 

"He  associates  with  a  maiden,  a  daughter  of  Aaron,  lately  married, 
who  keeps  him  awake  and  dispels  the  sleep;  " 

i.  c,  he  is  studying  clay  and  night  the  treatise  Tohoroth  of  the 
Mishnah,  which  discourses  about  the  purification  of  the  priests, 
and  by  its  profound  and  difficult  problems  dispels  sleep  [ibid.]. 

Still  more  enigmatical  and  obscure  is  the  following  story  from 
the  Talmud  (Aboda  Sarah  20,  b).  This  story  lias  been  taken 
literally  and  quoted  as  nonsense  and  immoral. 

"Bab  said,  'It  is  forbidden  to  admire  strange  beauty,  as  to  exclaim, 
How  lovely  is  this  strange  female.'  It  is,  however,  related,  that  R.  Simon 
ben  Gamaliel,  while  standing  upon  the  hill  of  the  Temple,  noticed  an  ex- 
ceedingly lovely  strange  female  and  exclaimed,  '  How  numerous  are  thy 
works,  O  God  !  *  R.  Akiba,  too,  beholding  the  wife  of  the  wicked  Turnus 
Rufus,  spit  out,  wept,  and  laughed.  He  spit  out,  as  she  originated  riQ^OD 
nnilD:  he  wept,  because  she  was  destined  to  become  dust  again,  and  he 
laughed,  because  in  the  future  he  would  convert  her  and  take  her  as  his 
wife." 

If  we  were  to  take  this  story  in  its  literal  sense,  there  would  re- 
main many  improbabilities  which  prove  the  inconsistency  of  the 
whole  statement.  If  by  R.  Simon  ben  Gamaliel,  the  first  of  tbat 
name,  who  lived  during  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  and 
perished  in  his  efforts  to  save  the  people  from  the  vortex  of  de- 
struction, is  understood,  how  did  a  strange  female,  a  foreigner, 
approach  the  Temple  in  his  time?  During  the  time  of  the  sec- 
ond Simon  ben  Gamaliel,  Jerusalem  had  become  a  Gentile  city, 
and  no  Jew  was  now  permitted  to  come  within  sight  of  it.  Aki- 
ba's actions  are  the  strangest  ever  related  of  a  man  of  sound  mind, 
and  the  reason  given  for  his  hilarity  is  certainly  inexplicable. 

But  if  we  know  that  by  w\2),  which  we  translated  "a  strange 
female,"  Greek  philosophy  is  referred  to,  and  notice  that  this 
more  general  expression  is  used  in  the  place  of  n""iDJ  ntrN>  the 
story  will  be  divested  of  its  hidden  meaning. 

Rab  opposed  the  strange  philosophy  in  toto.  R.  Simon  ben 
Gamaliel  II.,  although  standing  on  the  height  of  Jewish  lore,  still 
admired  Greek  philosophy  and  was  proficient  in  Gentile  litera- 


96  RIDDLES   IN   THE   TALMUD. 

ture.     He  praised  the  Lord  for  imparting  wisdom  to  the  human 
mind,  even  to  men  outside  of  the  Jewish  faith. 

In  the  account  of  the  actions  of  K.  Akiba,  we  see  the  different 
steps  in  the  study  of  the  Greek  philosophy,  taken  by  him. 

E.  Akiba  saw  "the  wife  of  the  wicked  Tnrnns  Eufus,"  i.  e.,  the 
Greek  philosophy.  When  at  first,  out  of  mere  curiosity,  he  ac- 
quainted himself  with  it,  ''he  first  spit  upon  it,  on  account  of  its 
impure  origin."  He  approached  the  foreign  literature,  not  ex- 
pecting that  it  would  contain  anything  valuable.  Still  as  he  be 
came  more  familiar  with  it,  and  in  it  discovered  unexpected  beau- 
ties and  deep  thoughts,  he  expressed  his  sorrow  that  the  sublime 
thoughts,  intermixed  with  fables,  should  perish,  as  he  felt  con- 
vinced they  must,  with  the  extinction  of  heathenism. 

After  further  reflections,  he  concluded  to  make  these  thoughts 
available  in  the  service  of  God,  and  applied  them  to  his  religion, 
and  thereby  raised  them  from  the  profane  state  to  holy  use.* 

*  See  Maaseh  Rikmah  (Commentary  on  Proverbs)  by  I.  H.  Kuttner, 
Rabbi  of  Lissa. 


A    RABBI    POET.  97 


CHAPTER  X. 
MISCELLANEOUS. 

1.  A  Rabbi  Poet. 

Among  the  Palestine  sages  of  the  fourth  century,  R.  Isaac 
Naphcha  excelled  as  a  man  of  ready  wit;  and  several  small  poetical 
pieces,  composed  by  him  in  pure  Hebrew  and  preserved  in  the 
Talmud,  show  him  a  poet  of  great  ability. 

The  high  esteem  in  which  he  was  held  is  proved  by  a  visit  paid 
him  by  two  prominent  Rabbis,  Ami  and  Assi  (B.  Kama  GO,  b). 
The  first  invited  him  to  tell  him  some  Halachah  (about  jurispru- 
dence), while  the  latter  requested  him  to  treat  them  with  some 
Agadah  (Biblical  exposition).  The  witty  Rabbi  related  them  the 
anecdote  of  the  man  Avho  married  a  young  and  an  old  wife. 
While  the  young  wife  deprived  the  man  of  his  white  hair,  that  he 
may  still  appear  young,  the  old  wife,  for  a  contrary  reason,  tore  out 
every  black  hair  of  his  head.  The  result  was  that  he  became  bald. 
The  Rabbi  applied  this  anecdote  to  the  opposite  requests  of  his 
friends ;  explained,  however,  a  verse  of  the  Bible  according  to 
both  branches  of  the  Talmud  in  order  to  satisfy  both. 

A  Biblical  passage  in  Jeremiah  (xi.  15)  he  explained  allegori- 
cally : 

When  the  glorious  Temple  was  destroyed, 

Abraham,  the  patriarch,  departed 

From  his  abode  celestial,  to  appear 

Before  the  sublime  throne  of  the  Almighty. 

"  '  What  bringeth  thee,  my  beloved,  to  my  presence  ? '  " 

Most  graciously  the  heavenly  Ruler  asked. 

"  In  my  children's  interest  I  appear." — 

But  God  said,  "  '  Thy  descendants,  they  have  sinned ' " — 

"  Perhaps  they  sinned  unintentionally" — 

"  '  They  sinned,  and  yet  they  were  fully  aware 

7 


98  MISCELLANEOUS   READINGS. 

That  their  acts  were  loathsome  in  mine  eyes.'  " 

' '  Perhaps  the  offender's  number  was  not  great  ?  '* — 

"  '  Nay,  it  was  the  greater  part  that  sinned.'  " 

"  O  Lord,  even  if  they  buried  in  oblivion 

The  many  obligations  due  to  thee, 

Remember  that  they  still  the  covenant 

Observe,  which  thou  so  graciously  hast  made 

With  me." — "  '  The  holy  flesh  is  passed  from  them.' ' 

"Why,  O  Most  Gracious,"  Abraham  implored, 

"  O  God!  why  dost  thou  not  endure  with  them, 

According  to  thy  great  and  wonted  mercy  ? 

They  still  may  from  their  evil  ways  return  !  " 

"  '  When  they  do  evil,  then  do  they  rejoice.'  " 

On  hearing  this,  the  patriarch  broke  forth 

In  lamentations  wild  and  as  sincere: 

' '  Is  for  my  offspring  not  a.  single  hope 

Kept  back  ?  "     When  thus  a  heavenly  voice  was  heard: 

"  '  A  verdant  olive-tree  of  goodly  fruit 

And  fair,  the  Almighty  called  thy  name.' 

Just  as  the  olive-tree  endureth  on 

For  many  years,  and  though  it  looks 

Now  barren,  bears  luxuriant  fruits  when  in 

Its  age,  so  likewise  shall  my  people  Israel."     (Menachot  53,  b.) 

E.  Isaac  visited  Babylonia  several  times  and  generally  stayed 
there  with  R.  Nachman  ben  Jacob,  a  renowned  Babylonian  sage, 
to  whom  he  communicated  several  expositions  of  Biblical  passages 
(Taanit  5,  a).  Once,  when  he  left  R,  Xachman,  he  pronounced 
the  beautiful  parable  about  the  fruitful  tree,  which  we  brought 
under  Valedictories  (p.  51). 

His  most  beautiful  composition,  however,  which  evinces  his 
great  poetical  talent,  he  uttered  on  the  following  occasion. 

In  the  account  of  the  sending  off  the  ark  of  covenant  by  the 
Philistines  (1  Sam.  vi.  12),  the  expression  is  used  -\-m  nnsn  nncvi 
(and  the  cows  took  the  straight  way),  which  according  to  Agadic 
interpretation  means,  "and  the  cows  sang  on  the  way."  The 
next  question  would  then  be,  What  did  they  sing?  Different 
passages  from  the  Scriptures  are  suggested,  as  appropriate  songs 
of  the  cows.  Among  them  R.  Isaac  introduces  a  song  of  his  own 
composition,  as  follows: 


MESSIANIC    PREDICTIONS.  09 

"Sing,  O  Ark,  in  beauty  shining! 

Thou  adorned  with  chains  of  gold. 
Ever  close  the  Word  enshrining, 

Glittering  with  gems  untold."    (Abodah  Sarah  22,  b.) 

This  neat  poem  is  not  only  composed  in  pure  Hebrew,  but  is 
also  written  according  to  the  parallelism  used  in  Biblical  poetry, 
and  observes  an  equality  of  syllables  in  its  lines.  The  first  two 
lines  have  six  syllables,  while  the  last  three  have  each  eight  sylla- 
bles. 

2.  Messianic  Predictions. 

The  promise  of  Messianic  times,  clearly  and  distinctly  intimated 
with  fiery  eloquence  by  the  prophets  of  old,  largely  contributed 
to  hold  the  Jews  together  through  centuries  of  dispersion,  perse- 
cution, and  contempt.  When  dark,  heavy  clouds  obscured  the 
horizon,  when  every  vestige  of  hope  seemed  to  have  faded  away, 
the  pious  Jew  did  not  despair,  nay,  the  very  sufferings  of  to-day 
were  looked  upon  as  precursors  of  that  blissful  time,  when  "  The 
mountain  of  the  Lord's  house  shall  be  exalted  above  the  hills, 
and  all  the  nations  shall  flow  unto  it.  And  many  nations  shall 
go  and  say,  Come  ye,  and  let  us  go  up  to  the  mountains  of  the 
Lord  "  (Isaiah  ii.  2,  3). 

The  belief  that  the  coming  of  Messiah  was  to  be  preceded  by 
distress  and  misfortunes,  founded  in  Biblical  prophecies  of  a  day 
of  judgment  (Isaiah  i.  1-20,  x.,  xiii.,  xv. ),  was  the  more  im- 
pressed upon  the  people  by  the  sages  in  times  of  misfortune,  as 
in  that  belief  they  found  consolation  and  strength.  "  When 
thou  seest  Israel  continually  decrease,  thou  mayest  expect  the 
advent  of  Messiah,  for  thus  it  is  written,  '  And  the  afflicted  peo- 
ple thou  wilt  save '  "  (2  Sam.  xxii.  28).  Such  was  taught  by  R. 
Yochanan  of  the  third  century.  Another  teacher  asserted, 
"Whenever  great  afflictions  come  torrent-like  upon  Israel,  expect 
the  Messiah,  for  thus  it  is  said,  '  When  the  enemy  shall  come  in 
like  a  flood,  the  SjDirit  of  the  Lord  shall  lift  up  a  standard  against 
him,  and  the  Redeemer  shall  come  to  Zion '  "  (Isaiah  lix.  19,  20). 

The  sayings  of  different  Rabbis,  as  enumerated  in  the  Talmud, 
about  the  sufferings  and  misfortunes,  and  the  low  state  of  society 


100  MISCELLANEOUS   WEITIKGS. 

which  will  precede  the  coming  of  happier  times,  are  summed  up 
in  the  Mishna  (Sota,  end). 

When  from  a  low'ring  sky  the  awful  thunder  rolls, 

And  tempest-nurtured  strife  the  warring  elements  controls, 

"Tis  but  a  harbinger  of  sweet-breathed  peace, 

When  storms  and  clouds  their  clashing  contest  cease. 

E'en  thus  'twill  be  before  the  sinful  earth 

Shall  hail  with  joy  the  Messianic  birth  : 


Crime  shall  increase,  distracting  times  prevail, 

Vines  bear  abounding  fruit  to  no  avail, 

When  oft-repeated  feasts  their  wealth  assail. 

In  vain  the  government  dictate  commands, 

No  admonition  long  respected  stands. 

The  halls  of  learning  changed  to  dens  of  shame; 

Bright  Gabalene  become  an  empty  name, 

And  Galilea  hurled  from  pride  and  fame. 

Homeless,  from  town  to  town,  the  settlers  go, 

And  none  be  found  to  mitigate  their  woe. 

The  wisdom  of  the  sage  will  be  in  bad  repute, 

God-fearing  men  despised,  great  justice  mute, 

And  golden-winged  truth  lie  prostitute. 

The  wrinkled  cheek  of  age  with  shame  will  burn, 

When  from  its  counsels  wise  the  youth  shall  turn . 

Before  the  minors  the  aged  rise, 

The  son  his  father  both  degrade,  despise, 

The  daughter  her  own  mother  tyrannize, 

Domestic  discord  reign  supreme,  and  all 

Upon  the  master  of  the  house  shall  fall ! 

To  barefaced  sin  the  people  fall  a  prey, 

And  world-worn  parents  note  their  sons'  decay. 

In  whom  is  now  our  hope,  in  whom  our  trust  ? 

In  the  Almighty  !  in  the  Great  and  Just ! " 


METAPHORICAL   LANGUAGE   IN"   HEBREW    LITERATURE.       101 


CHAPTER  XL 
THE  HYPERBOLE  OF  THE  TALMUD. 

Among  all  the  works  of  antiquity  there  was  none  subjected  to 
a  greater  diversity  of  criticism  than  the  Talmud. 

While  this  work  is  quoted  by  its  apologists  to  prove  its  divine 
philosophy,  its  incomparable  ethics  ;  its  detractors  always  find 
quotations  in  its  pages  to  prejudice  the  public  mind  against  it. 
How  are  such  diverging  results  possible  ? 

Some  expressions  and  passages  in  the  Talmud,  taken  literally, 
are  glaringly  opposed  to  common  sense,  or  repugnant  to  our 
ideas  of  right  and  justice  ;  and  without  reflection  or  reference  to 
the  influences  under  which  they  originated,  they  appear  to  have 
been  the  product  of  a  gross  and  superficial  intellect. 

Such  passages  have  been  repeatedly  quoted  by  the  accusers  of 
the  Talmud.  They  have  been  trumpeted  through  the  world, 
and  many — not  non-Israelites  alone — have  taken  from  such 
sources  their  knowledge,  and  formed  their  judgment  about  a 
work  which,  in  spite  of  all  vehement  and  oft-repeated  attacks, 
has  outlived  its  assailants,  and  still  forms  one  of  the  imperishable 
pillars  of  Judaism. 

Many  of  such  passages,  however,  will  upon  closer  investigation 
appear  radiant  and  beautiful,  when  the  clouds  of  misinterpreta- 
tion and  misunderstanding  are  dispersed. 

It  is  a  well-known  fact  that  every  nation  possesses  a  peculiar 
genius  and  character,  and  that  the  application  of  its  genius  is 
also  influenced  by  external  circumstances.  A  diversity  of  climate 
and  manner  of  living  will  produce  a  variety  of  thoughts  and 
ideas,  and  will  give  peculiar  character  to  the  style  and  color  of 
the  compositions.  We  must,  therefore,  distrust  and  defer  our 
judgment  until  after  a  closer  examination  of  works  that  were 


102  THE   HYPEKBOLE   OF   THE   TALMUD. 

written,  not  only  hundreds  of  years  ago,  under  a  climate  entirely 
different  from  ours,  and,  therefore,  under  a  diverse  mode  of 
living,  but  also  written  in  a  language  which,  even  in  prose, 
abounds  in  metaphors,  forcible  and  picturesque,  and  of  which 
words  and  phrases  yet  wait  for  a  master's  hand  to  remove  the 
veil  by  which  they  are  obscured. 

The  employment  of  metaphors  prevails  throughout  Hebrew 
literature.  Imagination  is  most  vigorous  and  predominant  in 
its  pages,  and  even  where  we  should  expect  philosophical  pre- 
cision, the  fire  of  enthusiasm  breaks  forth  in  figurative  and  pic- 
turesque language,  as  well  as  in  exaggeration  and  hyperbole. 

It  is,  therefore,  with  the  appreciation  of  the  highly  tinted 
metaphorical  language  prevailing  throughout  its  pages,  that  we 
have  to  judge  of  moral  and  intellectual  ideas,  and  of  the  most 
abstract  conceptions  clothed  in  figures  of  speech,  though  even 
then  some  will  remain  unintelligible. 

We  shall  endeavor  to  investigate  some  hyperbolical  and  seem- 
ingly unintelligible  expressions,  as  also  the  tales  of  the  Talmud, 
especially  such  as  were  misconstrued  by  the  detractors  from 
Judaism. 

1.  Hypekbolic  Aphorisms. 

There  appears  a  whole  class  of  sentences  about  the  importance 
of  different  laws  and  virtues  which,  by  their  apparent  inconsis- 
tency with  similar  sentences,  even  if  from  different  teachers, 
show  their  hyperbolic  nature.  While  we  find  in  one  part  of  the 
Talmud  "The  sages  said,  'The  study  of  the  Law  exceeds  every- 
thing'" (Pea  i.  1),  there  is  another  passage  entirely  inconsistent 
with  this,  asserting,  "  Whosoever  engages  in  the  study  of  the 
Law,  and  does  not  practise  benevolence,  is  to  be  compared  to  a 
man  who  has  no  God"  (Abodah  Sarah  17,  b). 

Such  inconsistences  can  only  be  accounted  for  from  the  pecu- 
liar inclination  of  our  ancestors  for  using  hyperbolic  expressions 
to  indicate  the  importance  of  the  assertion.  They  use  the  super- 
lative, to  exalt  their  conceptions  of  the  consequences  of  the  truth. 

Sentences  of  this  nature  are  the  following: 

"  The  importance  of  the  law  about  circumcision  exceeds  that 


HYPERBOLIC    APHORISMS.  103 

of  all  other  laws  of  the  Tonih  "  (Nedarim  44,  a).  "  The  law  about 
the  ritual  cords  exceeds  in  importance  all  other  laws  united" 
(Menach.  99,  h).  '"'Spending  alms  and  practising  benevolence 
exceed  in  importance  all  the  other  laws  of  the  Torah"  (Abodah 
Sarah  17,  b). 

At  the  time  when  these  principles  were  uttered,  the  disciples 
correctly  appreciated  these  hyperbolical  expressions,  and  those 
who  make  the  Talmud  the  study  of  their  life  are  fully  aware  of 
the  necessary  limitations  in  cases  of  collision  between  the  differ- 
ent religious  duties.  The  anxiety  of  the  Rabbis  to  impress  upon 
the  people  the  sad  consequences  of  the  disregard  of  certain  laws, 
or  the  happy  influence  arising  from  the  observance  of  others, 
causes  them  to  describe  such  consequences  in  the  superlative,  and 
their  utterances  take  a  still  higher  flight. 

"  Whoever  engages  in  the  study  of  the  Law,  practises  benevo- 
lence, and  attends  public  worship,  is  looked  upon  as  having  done 
favors  unto  the  Most  High  "  (Berachot  8,  a).  "  The  visiting  of 
the  sick  saves  from  the  pangs  of  hell,  as  expressed  in  the  Psalms, 
'  Blessed  is  he  that  wisely  considereth  the  poor,  the  Lord  will 
deliver  him  in  time  of  trouble'  "  (Ps.  xli.  2).  '*  Whoever  trans- 
gresses one  of  the  precepts  of  the  sages,  deserves  to  be  put  to 
death"  (Berach.  4,  a). 

The  last  sentence  finds  its  full  solution  in  the  explanation  given 
by  Rashi:  "This  warning  is  asserted,  because  common  people 
will  pay  little  regard  to  Rabbinical  laws,  and  therefore  stronger 
language  was  required."  Nevertheless,  this  sentence  was  very 
often  quoted  to  prove  the  arrogance  of  the  sages.  Stated  separ- 
ately, without  any  knowledge  and  appreciation  of  the  spirit  of 
the  Agadah,  it  really  sounds  harsh  and  arrogant.  But  if  we  are 
aware  that  for  many  minor  offences,  as  for  instance,  to  make  a 
person  blush,  the  authors  of  the  Agadah  would  declare  the  of- 
fender "  deserving  to  be  put  to  death,"  or  "  worthy  to  be  deprived 
of  his  future  bliss,"  we  would  and  the  figure  of  speech  very  strong, 
but  let  us  take  it  for  no  more  than  it  was  intended.  These  very 
men,  so  ready  to  declare  a  minor  offence  deserving  to  be  punished 
by  death,  were  very  slow  to  condemn  a  real  culprit,  and  subjected 


104  THE   HYPERBOLE   OF   THE   TALMUD. 

witnesses  in  criminal  trials  to  such  a  rigid  examination,  that  in 
most  cases  an  actual  conviction  became  impossible! 

To  this  class  also  belongs  a  large  series  of  sentences  in  chapter 
eleven  of  Talmud  Sanhedrin,  using  the  expression,  "  He  will  not 
participate  in  the  future  life."  There  the  Rabbis  expressed  their 
antipathy  to  certain  men  of  the  past,  and  their  aversion  for  cer- 
tain heretics;  but  that  this  expression  is  nothing  more  than  hy- 
perbole appears  distinctly  from  the  Talmud  itself,  and  is  repeat- 
edly asserted  (see  Sanh.  100,  a;  102,  a). 

Religious  enthusiasm  intensified  their  conception  of  the  conse- 
quences of  trespassing,  and  of  the  sad  future  of  the  sinner. 

2.  Conceptions  of  God. 

Another  class  of  hyperboles  are  such  Agadoth,  wherein  God  is 
represented  as  possessed  of  human  attributes  and  affections,  so 
that  it  almost  appears  as  if  the  Talmudists  could  not  have  had  any 
other  conception  of  God  than — a  divine  human  being,  who  is 
governed  by  passions,  sometimes  filled  with  the  deepest  sorrow, 
at  another  time  in  the  merriest  mood;  who  presides  at  a  court  of 
counsellors,  and  at  another  time  puts  on  phylacteries  and  recites 
prayers.  If  we  would  take  such  passages  as  the  standard  for  the 
real  views  of  the  Talmudists  about  the  attributes  of  God,  we  would 
come  to  the  conclusion  that  their  conception  of  the  Deity  was  a 
very  low  one,  approaching  to  a  great  extent  that  of  the  Greeks. 

We  must  admit  that,  in  spite  of  strenuous  efforts  of  modern 
Talmudical  scholars  to  explain  several  of  these  Agadoth,  there  are 
many  still  covered  with  impenetrable  darkness,  and  which  must 
be  classed  among  the  rubbish  which  later  revisors  of  the  Talmud 
incorporated  without  any  due  regard  for  the  material  they 
handled,  simply  because  they  found  them  reported. 

To  counterbalance  these  strange-looking  Agadoth,  which  were 
also  condemned  in  the  very  book  they  are  recorded,*  we  possess 

*  R.  Akiba  indulged  in  mystical  Agadoth,  and  was  admonished  by  R. 
Ismael,  "How  long  wilt  thou  profane  the  Almighty?"  (Chagiga  14). 
About  a  book  containing  Agadoth  of  that  class,  R.  Chia,  although  him- 
self a  friend  of  the  Agadah,  said,  "  Even  if  there  are  useful  things  con- 
tained therein,  the  hand  that  wrote  it  deserves  to  be  cut  off"  (Baba  Ka- 
ma 55,  b). 


CONCEPTIONS    OF   GOD.  105 

f 

clear  and  distinct  assertions  against  anthropomorphisms,  the  rep- 
resentations of  God  with  human  attributes  and  affections. 

It  is  known  with  what  solicitude  the  ancient  translators  of  the 
Bible  endeavored  to  avoid  all  anthropomorphisms,  and  the  great 
mastery  which  Targum  Onkelos  evinced  in  that  direction.  It  is 
distinctly  stated  in  the  Talmud  that  this  translation  was  made 
under  the  supervision  of  two  teachers  of  the  Mishna,  R.  Elieser 
ben  Hyrcanos  and  R.  Joshua  ben  Chananya  (Megilla  8,  a).  The 
Talmud  very  warmly  indorsed  that  version,  and  the  precept,  to 
read  it  together  with  the  Hebrew  text,  appears  to  be  founded 
upon  the  fact  that  by  such  version  every  misapprehension  of  the 
Biblical  anthropomorphism  would  be  avoided. 

About  the  efforts  of  the  Talmudiststo  accomplish  a  correct  ap- 
preciation of  the  anthropomorphisms  existing  in  the  Bible,  Mai- 
monides  says,  "Our  sages  have  issued  a  general  rule,  which  re- 
jects every  false  conception  of  the  Biblical  anthropomorphisms — a 
rule  which  at  the  same  time  evidently  proves  that  the  authors  of 
the  Talmud  could  never  have  intended  to  attribute  corporeity  to 
God.  This  general  sentence  appears  in  Bereshit  Rabba  (Ch.  27) 
and  runs  as  follow:  "It  was  a  hazardous  attempt  of  the  pro- 
phets to  represent  God  by  forms  of  his  creations." 

There  is  another  saying  of  the  Talmud,  also  very  often  quoted 
by  Maimonides,  which  proves  the  correct  appreciation  of  such 
Biblical  expressions  as  mere  figures  of  speech  by  the  ancient  Rab- 
bis, namely  the  often  repeated  sentence  q-jn  *j2  jiB^a  rrrn  "narr 
"The  Torah  uses  human  language."  * 

As  a  warning  against  the  misuse  of  esoteric  studies  the  Mishna 
Chagiga  (ii.  1)  asserts,  "  Every  one  who  despises  reverence  for 
his  Creator  would  better  not  have  been  born."  This  sentence, 
as  appears  from  its  connection  in  the  Mishna,  must  have  been 
originally  directed  against  the  misapplication  of  anthropomorph- 
isms, as  also  another  sentence,  "Who  translates  every  verse  liter- 
ally, asserts  a  lie;  who  joins  something  to  it,  defames"  (Kidushin 
49,  a). 

*  This  sentence  seems  also  to  have  been  used  by  the  apostle  Paul  in  his 
epistles  to  the  Romans  (iii.  5):  "  Is  God  unrighteous  who  takes  vengeance? 
I  speak  as  a  man." 


106  THE   HYPERBOLE    OF   THE   TALMUD. 

We  could  quote  many  passages  which  would  prove  that  the 
great  teachers  and  leaders  of  Judaism  not  only  possessed  the 
most  correct  conceptions  concerning  God  and  His  attributes,  hut 
also  combated  the  fallacious  ideas  which  threatened  to  creep  in 
from  the  metaphysical  teachings  of  the  Greek  schools. 

Most  of  the  passages,  however,  which  have  a  mystical  aspect 
and  appear  to  be  in  contradiction  to  common  sense,  and  to  the 
otherwise  prevailing  sublime  ideas  about  the  Deity,  were  some- 
times selected  by  the  enemies  of  the  Talmud,  to  prove  its  low 
character;  they  made  a  collection  of  thorns  and  thistles,  and  pur- 
posely passed  by  the  beautiful  flowers  growing  in  great  luxuriance 
on  every  side. 

3.  Hyperbolic  Slanders. 

In  Talmud  Kidushin  (82,  a)  is  cited  the  proverb  Dianas?  am 
Drn:6  "The  best  of  physicians  belongs  to  hell."  This  harsh 
judgment  against  a  highly  respected  class  is  strikingly  inconsist- 
ent with  the  estimation  expressed  by  every  other  passage  in  which 
physicians  are  mentioned. 

"  Medicine  is  a  science  whose  practice  is  authorized  by  God 
Himself"  (Berachot  60,  a).  '"'The  strict  observance  of  Sab- 
bath and  Tom  Kippur  is  set  aside,  when  the  physician  declares 
such  desecration  necessary,  even  against  the  will  of  the  patient 
(Yoma  83,  a).  "  We  ought  not  to  live  in  a  town  where  no  phy- 
sician resides  "  (Sanh.  17,  b).  The  Talmud  also  quotes  several 
times  the  proverb  from  Sirach,  "Honor  thy  physician  even  be- 
fore thou  needest  his  advice." 

These  passages,  together  with  numerous  historical  facts,  prov- 
ing the  great  respect  physicians  enjoyed  among  the  Jews  during 
all  ages,  will  satisfy  the  incredulous  that  the  above  quoted  pas- 
sage in  reference  to  physicians  must  be  taken  Avithin  certain 
limits,  as  a  popular  proverb,  which  said  .more  than  it  meant. 
Proverbs  of  every  nation  show  the  physicians  subjected  to  the 
sharp  satire  of  popular  wit.  This  was  mostly  directed  against 
quackery,  but  popular  proverbs  like  to  generalize,  and  to  leave 
the  reflecting  mind  to  make  the  necessary  exceptions.  In  pious 
England  the  physicians  enjoyed  a  bad  reputation  for  neglecting 


HYPERBOLIC    SLANDERS.  107 

religious  duties.     They  were  even  attacked  for  atheism.    Chaucer 
said  : 

' '  Physicians  know  what  is  digestible ; 
But  their  study  is  but  little  in  the  Bible." 

An  old  Latin  proverb  says:  "Ubi  tres  medici  duo  Athei." 

Another  passage  often  quoted  by  the  accusers  of  Judaism  runs 
as  follows: 

Jnn  D"U3LM  31B  "  The  best  among  the  heathen  deserve  to  be 
killed." 

We  must  remark  that  our  editions  have  DnjfD  "Egyptians" 
in  the  place  of  D^J  "  Heathen"  and  that  the  passage  appears  in 
the  following  connection: 

"  When  the  Lord  caused  the  hail  to  come  down  upon  Egypt, 
he  that  feared  the  Lord  among  the  servants  of  Pharaoh  made  his 
servants  and  his  cattle  flee  into  the  houses;  and  he  that  regard- 
ed not  the  word  of  the  Lord,  left  his  servants  and  his  cattle  in 
the  field.  And  the  hail  smote  throughout  all  the  land  of  Egypt, 
all  that  was  in  the  field,  both  man  and  beast  "  (Ex.  xx.  21). 
When  Pharaoh  pursued  the  Israelites,  "he  took  six  hundred 
chosen  chariots  and  all  the  chariots  of  Egypt,  and  captains  over 
every  one  of  them." 

Upon  these  passages  Rashi  remarks,  after  the  Midrash,  "As  it 
appears  that,  only  a  short  time  before,  all  the  beasts  of  Egypt 
were  killed,  while  the  Israelites  had  taken  theirs  with  them,  the 
beasts  used  at  the  pursuit  must  have  come  from  those  Egyptians 
who,  on  the  occasion  of  the  hail,  had  feared  the  Lord,  and  made 
their  cattle  flee  into  the  houses.  To  these  may  be  applied  a  say- 
ing of  E.  Simon,  'The  purest  of  the  Egyptians  deserved  death; 
the  best  of  the  serpents  deserves  to  have  its  head  bruised '  '  (Rashi 
on  Ex.  xiv.  7). 

It  seems  that,  at  a  later  time,  this  proverb  was  perverted  into 
a  general  formula  for  all  heathens,  worshippers  of  idols;  but 
even  then  only  with  the  same  conception  and  limitation  as  set 
forth  for  other  hyperbolic  expressions. 

A   similar  assertion,  appearing  to  express,  not  only  hatred, 


108  THE  HYPERBOLE  OF  THE  TALMUD. 

but  also  blasphemous  ideas  against  Gentiles,  when  taken  from  its 
connection,  is  the  following  (Sanh.  53,  b.);  it  was  also  often 
brought  forth  as  an  accusation  against  the  Talmud. 

Eesh  Lakish  taught,  "A  non-Israelite  who  rests  on  Sabbath 
deserves  death,  for  it  is  written,  '  And  day  and  night  shall  (they) 
not  cease '"  (Gen.  viii.  22).  Another  teacher  asserted,  "That 
when  no  express  punishment  is  stated,  in  reference  to  non- 
Israelites,  capital  punishment  must  be  understood." 

As  distinctly  appears  by  the  Biblical  passage  quoted,  the 
assertion  is  an  ironical  reply  to  those  Christians  who  ridiculed  the 
Jews  for  their  strict  resting  on  Sabbath,  as  the  elements  do  not 
cease  to  work  on  that  day.  In  St.  John  (v.  17)  Jesus  is  reported 
to  have  said,  when  the  Jews  persecuted  him  for  having  allowed  a 
man  to  carry  his  bed  on  Sabbath,  "  My  father  worketh  hitherto, 
and  I  work. "  This  argument  was  undoubtedly  often  used  against 
the  Jews,  to  which  the  passage  of  the  Bible  was  applied  which 
may  be  literally  translated  "  they  shall  not  cease,"  and  be 
referred  to  every  creature,  hence  also  to  man,  and  must  be  taken 
as  a  commandment,  if  the  laws  for  the  Sabbath  should  have  no 
binding  force.  In  case  of  neglecting  to  work  continually,  the 
Rabbi  ironically  adds,  "  you  would  deserve  death,"  as  trespass- 
ing the  commandment,  "  And  day  and  night  they  shall  not  cease 
to  work." 

4.  Hyperbolic  Legends. 

A  clear  appreciation  of  the  love  of  the  ancients  for  hyperbolic 
language  explains  some  apparent  miracles  related  in  the  Talmud 
and  Midrashim. 

In  Talmud  Sabbath  (49)  is  related,  "  Once  the  Greek  govern- 
ment gave  a  strict  order  prohibiting  the  wearing  of  phylacteries. 
R.  Elisha,  nevertheless,  appeared  in  the  street  with  his  phylac- 
teries. When  caught  by  a  Roman  officer,  he  had  them  in  his 
closed  hand.  Upon  being  asked  what  he  held  in  his  hand,  he 
answered,  '  wings  of  a  dove,'  and  when  he  opened  his  hand,  be- 
hold! there  appeared  therein  the  wings  of  a  dove."  This  occur- 
rence certainly  looks  very  miraculous,  but  if  we  turn  to  Psalms 
(lxviii.  13),  we  find  there  "the  wings  of  the  dove  covered  with 


HYPEKBOLIC    LEGENDS.  100 

silver,  and  her  feathers  with  yellow  gold."  There  is  the  solution! 
R.  Elisha  bribed  the  officer,  and  it  would  have  been  miraculous 
if  a  Roman  officer  had  refused  the  silver  covering  of  the  wings  of 
the  dove.  The  Rabbi,  in  stating  "there  appeared  therein  the 
wings  of  a  dove,"  gave  us  the  first  part  of  the  verse,  and  left  to 
the  reader  to  add  the  other  part  of  the  verse,  as  the  true  explana- 
tion of  his  escape. 

A  passage  in  the  Talmud  that  appears  to  be  of  a  highly  hyper- 
bolic nature  is  the  following: 

"  A  disciple  addressed  his  teacher  R.  Jonathan  in  a  very  arro- 
gant manner.  The  Rabbi  said,  'Fool!  if  thou  hadst  not  seen  it, 
thou  wouldst  not  believe?  Thou  ridiculest  the  words  of  the 
sages?  The  Rabbi  turned  his  eyes  upon  the  disciple,  and  he  be- 
came a  heap  of  stones."  * 

Rashi  explains  this — that  the  disciple  died  by  the  sharp  look  of 
the  Rabbi,  expressed  here  under  a  hyperbolical  figure.  If  we  ac- 
cept the  explanation  of  Rashi,  then  we  have  here  a  curious 
incident  for  physiologists  to  reflect  upon.  The  Abbe  Rousseau 
states  that  he  killed  four  crabs  in  Egypt  by  looking  sharply  at 
them.  But  upon  trying  the  same  experiment  at  Lyons, 
France,  the  crab  looked  sharply  at  him  and  he  fainted  in  conse- 
quence. The  "  evil  eye  "  is  even  yet  a  common  superstition  in 
the  Orient  and  the  southern  countries  of  Europe,  and  its  imagi- 
nary effects  upon  those  who  conceive  themselves  affected,  are  very 
singular.  We  shall  leave  it  to  the  reader  to  connect  these  facts 
with  the  quoted  Talmudical  story,  and  allow  him  to  draw  his  own 
conclusions. 

*  In  connection  with  this  story  appears  another  story.  Expounding 
the  passage  in  Isaiah  (liv.  12),  "  And  I  will  make  thy  windows  of  agates, 
and  thy  gates  of  carbuncles,"  R.  Jochanan  undertook  to  give  the  dimen- 
sions which  such  gems  would  necessarily  possess  for  such  a  purpose. 
One  of  the  disciples  ridiculed  the  exposition  of  the  Rabbi,  as  the  gems 
seldom  reach  the  size  of  the  egg  of  a  small  bird.  Some  time  after,  that 
disciple  undertook  a  sea  voyage,  and  saw  there  heaps  upon  heaps  of  pre- 
cious stones  (icebergs).  He  asked  the  angels  moving  them,  "  For  what 
purpose  are  these  made  ?  "  and  they  replied,  "They  are  to  be  used  for  the 
gates  of  Jerusalem ! "  It  was  now  for  R.  Jochanan  to  doubt  the  narra- 
tive of  his  disciple  and  to  take  it  as  a  satire  on  his  words. 


110  the  hyperbole  of  the  talmud. 

5.  Enigmatical  in  Place  of  Improper  Language. 

Another  class  of  expressions  and  sentences,  which  in  most  cases 
sound  enigmatical  and  sometimes  hyperbolical,  had  its  origin  in 
the  endeavor  of  the  ancients  to  avoid  the  uttering  of  anything 
profane,  obscene,  or  even  disagreeable  and  improper.  Their  ideas 
in  respect  to  what  is  to  be  considered  as  such,  were  rather  more 
refined  and  delicate  than  those  of  our  time. 

They  assert  that  the  Bible  already  set  examples  for  using  only 
pure  language.  In  the  narrative  of  the  flood  we  read,  "  of 
beasts  that  are  not  clean  "  (Gen.  vii.  2),  in  order  to  avoid  the  ex- 
pression "  unclean  "  in  reference  to  living  beasts;  also  in  another 
passage,  "If  there  be  among  you  any  man  who  is  not  clean  " 
(Deut.  xxiii.  10),  instead  of  "unclean." 

It  is,  therefore,  laid  down  as  a  principle,  "  We  should  always 
endeavor  to  use  decent  language." 

Especially  are  all  references  to  licentiousness,  unchastity,  in- 
cest, and  the  like,  expressed  in  such  figurative  forms  that  only 
an  intimate  acquaintance  with  such  language  discerns  its  true 
meaning.  If  the  Eabbis  teach:  yuri  nn  *>vap  mnp3  $>B>2n  tib 
"Do  not  cook  in  a  pot  wherein  another  has  already  cooked" 
(Pesachim  112),  it  is  the  figurative  exj^ression  for  the  same  idea 
expressed  in  Luke  (xvi.  18).  An  apparently  meaningless  rule, 
-inN  om  rry  jm  nr  diss  din  nnw  bx  "  Do  not  drink  from  a 
cup  while  thine  eyes  are  directed  upon  another "  (Nedarim  20, 
b),  receives  its  true  meaning  only  from  the  connection  in  which 
it  is  used,  namely  referring  to  marital  faithlessness.  In  close 
connection  with  these  quoted  sayings  is  an  assertion  stated  in 
the  name  of  the  College  of  Hillel,  which  has  been  often  mis- 
understood. In  the  last  Mishna  of  Ghittin  (Ch.  8,  M.  10) 
appears  a  debate  between  the  two  schools  of  Shamai  and  Hillel, 
about  the  right  of  the  husband  to  divorce  his  wife.  Hillel  as- 
serts, he  might  be  permitted  to  divorce  her,  "  if  she  spoils  his 
meals  "  lT'BOn  nnnpn  l^'Stf  and  undoubtedly  used  this  expression 
in  a  euphemistical  sense,  in  accordance  with  the  above  sayings, 
although  later  commentators  took  it  literally. 


METAPHYSICAL   HYPERBOLES.  Ill 

With  the  same  feelings  for  decency,  the  ancients  used  certain 
words  euphemistically  to  express  a  meaning  opposite  to  that 
which  they  originally  had,  a  custom  already  observed  in  the 
Bible. 

The  passage  in  Job  (ii.  0)  noi  DTPN  ya  meaning  literally 
to  "bless  the  Lord,"'  is  translated  "  Curse  God  and  die."  (See 
also  1  Kings  xxi.  10).  IDn  "'kindness"  is  taken  in  Leviticus 
(xx.  17)  and  Proverbs  (xiv.  34)  for  reproach,  disgrace;  there  are 
several  similar  instances.  So  the  Kabbis  used  DCS*.""  "pao  for 
' '  blasphemy. " 

6.  Metaphysical  Hyperboles. 

The  most  obscure  and  therefore  the  most  difficult  class  of  Tal- 
mudical  hyperboles  comprises  stories,  legends,  and  similar  com- 
positions of  very  diverse  nature  and  signification. 

The  Oriental  philosopher  clothed  his  metaphysical  observations 
and  subtle  ideas  in  the  garb  of  extravagant  metaphors  and 
allegory,  so  that  in  many  cases  they  become  unintelligible  to  the 
reader  of  the  present  day.  References  to  current  events  by  a 
trodden  down  and  persecuted  race  could  be  intrusted  to  writing 
only  enshrined  in  most  obscure  figures  of  speech,  comprehensible 
to  the  initiated  alone.  Then  a  mixture  of  superstitious  views 
and  idle  tales  about  witchcraft,  magical  cures,  interpretations  of 
dreams,  etc.,  adopted  from  the*  Persian  surroundings,  although 
in  conflict  with  the  pure  spirit  of  Judaism  otherwise  prevailing 
in  its  pages,  were  admitted  into  the  Talmud. 

We  shall  try  to  illustrate  some  of  this  class  of  hyperboles,  so 
as  to  enable  the  reader  to  make  his  own  conclusions  about  similar 
others,  open  to  a  rational  explanation. 

As  everything  in  nature,  according  to  the  Biblical  account  of 
the  creation  was  formed  in  its  perfect  state,  so  Adam,  formed 
by  the  hand  of  the  Creator,  the  Rabbis  concluded,  must  have 
been  created  in  the  most  perfect  state,  physically  and  mentally. 
This  idea,  that  man  in  his  perfection  was  formed  to  ascend  from 
nature  to  nature's  God,  they  expressed  hyperbolically,  "  Adam 
reached  from  earth  to  heaven."     (Chagiga  12;  Sanh.  38.) 


112  THE  HYPERBOLE  OF  THE  TALMUD. 

The  twofold  nature  in  man,  the  material  and  spiritual,  they 
expressed  again,  "  Adam  had  two  faces;  one  turning  to  the  East 
the  other  to  the  West."  (Bereshit  K.  9.)  That  is  to  say,  the 
spiritual  nature  of  man  is  turned  towards  the  East,  the  source  of 
light  and  knowledge,  his  physical  nature  is  inclined  towards  the 
West,  the  seat  of  darkness,  the  abode  of  sensuality  and  debase- 
ment. 

The  cosmopolitan  destiny  of  man,  as  well  as  his  bodily  and 
spiritual  capacities,  are  alluded  to  in  the  following  assertion: 
"  The  body  of  man,  God  took  from  Babylon  (the  country  of 
abundance),  the  head  from  Palestine  (the  abode  of  pure  knowl- 
edge of  God),  and  the  other  members  from  every  other  country  " 
(Erubin  23). 

7.  Historical  Narratives. 

Narratives  of  historical  events  generally  appear  in  the  form 
of  a  legend,  or  in  a  kind  of  secret  writing  of  which  we  are  here 
enabled  to  give  an  example. 

Constantius  renewed  the  Hadrianic  edicts  against  the  Jews, 
and  the  exercises  of  religious  rites  were  rigidly  prohibited;  Rab- 
ba,  the  academical  head  of  Mahuza,  forced  to  hide  his  purpose, 
sent  the  following  enigmatical  message  to  the  Jewish  communi- 
ties, informing  them  of  the  intercalation  of  a  month  into  the 
calendar,  "  Men  from  Reketh  (Tiberias)  were  caught  by  the  eagle 
(Romans),  for  they  had  in  their  possession  fabrics  from  Luz 
(purple  for  fringes).  But  through  God's  mercy  and  their  worthi- 
ness, they  fortunately  escaped.  The  descendants  of  Nachshon, 
(the  patriarch)  desired  to  appoint  a  guardian  of  the  month  (an 
intercalary  month),  but  the  Aramaean  (Romans)  would  not  per- 
mit it;  they  nevertheless  met  and  appointed  the  month,  in  which 
Aaron  died  (Ab). 

Another  historical  fact  is  related  in  the  following  story: 

"  Once  upon  a  time,  an  egg  of  Bar-Ioceane  fell  down,  and  it 
inundated  sixty  cities,  and  broke  down  three  hundred  cedars.*' 
It  was  asked,  "  How  came  the  egg  to  fall;  since  it  is  written,  the 
wing  of  the  songster  is  beautified?"  To  which  Rabbi  Ashi 
replied,  "because  it  was  a  foul  egg.^ 


BAR   BAR   CHANA.  113 

As  this  story  refers  to  an  egg,  it  was  concluded,  that  Bar-Io- 
ceane  must  be  a  bird  of  the  greatest  dimension,  while  it  really 
means  the  offspring  of  the  ocean,  and  finds  its  solution  in  the 
following  passage  from  Manava  Sastra.  "  He  (the  self-existing) 
desiring  to  raise  up  various  creatures,  by  an  emanation  from  his 
own  glory,  first  created  the  waters,  and  impressed  them  with  a 
power  of  motion:  by  that  power  was  produced  a  Golden  Egg, 
blazing  like  a  thousand  suns,  in  which  was  born  Brahma,  self- 
existing,  the  great  parent  of  all  rational  beings." 

The  fable,  therefore,  alludes  to  a  terrible  persecution  which 
then  raged  against  some  Hindoo  sects  who  believed  in  the 
mundane  egg. 

8.    Bar  Bar  Ghana. 

Among  the  Babylonian  sages,  it  was  especially  E.  Bar  Bar 
Chana,  who  became  renowned  as  the  author  of  fantastical  and 
hyperbolical  tales.  He  lived  during  the  early  part  of  the  third 
century,  and  after  a  long  sojourn  in  Palestine  came  to  Babylonia; 
we  meet  him  both  at  Sura  and  Pumbeditha. 

That  he  was  well  versed  in  the  more  difficult  part  of  Talmudi- 
cal  science,  the  Halachah,  appears  from  the  fact  that  K.  Judah, 
the  founder  of  the  academy  at  Pumbeditha,  used  to  ask  his  ad- 
vice in  difficult  cases  (Moed  Katon  17,  a). 

He  was  also  an  observing  traveller,  and  visited  the  wilderness 
of  Israel's  wanderings  in  company  with  Arabian  caravans. 

Of  the  stories  which,  under  his  name,  recount  either  what  he 
had  actually  seen  or  what  his  fancy  grotesquely  dictated,  the 
first  class  comprises  his  explanations  of  localities  in  the  Bible. 
In  the  second  class,  an  Arab  generally  plays  a  leading  part,  and 
in  many  of  these,  the  wilderness  of  Sinai  serves  as  the  scene  of 
action.  An  Arab  was  the  guide  of  the  travelling  party  in  this 
district,  who  is  reported  as  familiar  with  the  wilderness  in  such 
a  degree  that  he  recognized  the  vicinity  of  springs  by  the  smell 
of  sand  (Jebam.  120,  b). 

This  ready  Arab  once  pointed  out  to  him  Mount  Sinai,  and  a 

heavenly  voice  was  heard,   "Woe,  that  I  have  sworn,  and  now 

8 


114  THE   HYPEKBOLE    OF   THE   TALMUD. 

after  I  have  sworn,  who  will  break  my  oath?"  Hereupon  the 
Arab  showed  Eabba  the*  very  spot  where  Korah  and  his  band  had 
been  swallowed  up  by  the  earth,  and  from  the  depths  there  issued 
a  yoice:  "  Moses  is  truth  and  his  law  is  truth:  but  we  are  liars."  * 

We  would  err  in  supposing  that  these  assertions  were  credu- 
lously accepted  by  the  contemporaries;  on  the  contrary,  some 
one  ironically  asked  Eabba,  when  he  related  about  the  voice 
heard  from  the  Mount  Sinai,  why  he  did  not  offer  to  release  God 
from  His  oath;  while  others  applied  to  him  the  not  very  compli- 
mentary proverb,  ' '  Every  Abba  is  a  dunce  and  every  Bar  Bar 
Chana  a  fool." 

Of  another  character  is  the  story  in  which  an  Arab  shows  him 
the  spot  where  heaven  and  earth  kiss  each  other.  He  there 
fastened  his  bread  basket  and  went  away;  when  he  returned,  the 
basket  was  not  to  be  found.  His  wise  guide  told  him  that, 
if  he  would  return  after  twenty-four  hours,  he  would 
find  it  again.  This  was  evidently  an  illustration  of  a  leading 
point  in  the  Ptolemean  theory,  that  the  heavens  turn  around  the 
earth  in  twenty-four  hours.  The  Avilderness  is  just  the  place 
where  heaven  and  earth  might  touch  each  other,  as  there  is  noth- 
ing there  to  disturb  their  contact;  especially  in  that  wilderness, 
where,  at  the  time  of  the  revelation  at  Mt.  Sinai,  "the  heaven 
had  inclined  itself  to  the  earth." 

Kabba's  stories  about  his  sea  journeys  have  the  stamp  of  most 

*  It  is  not  only  elsewhere  stated  in  the  Talmud,  but  it  is  also  a  common 
belief  among  the  Beduins  travelling  in  the  region  of  Mount  Sinai,  that 
sometimes  strange  voices  are  heard  from  the  mount,  to  which  the  vivid 
Oriental  imagination  gives  words.  Ehrenberg,  a  modern  German  travel- 
ler, who  also  heard  such  strange  voices,  investigated  their  origin.  He 
found  that  the  rocks  in  the  vicinity  are  covered  by  very  fine  sand,  which 
is  easily  put  in  motion,  even  by  a  small  bird  alighting.  The  sand  once 
in  motion  increases  in  bulk  and  rolling  down  the  rocks,  produces  in  the 
stillness  of  the  desert  sounds  very  similar  to  the  wailing  of  a  human 
being.  From  the  Rabbi's  sentence  ido  "»  "njn^JCy  lBOJfl  TjnC'JK'  "6  ""IN 
^  the  sound  must  have  been  a  succession  of  hissing  sounds,  which  his 
lively  imagination  translated  into  the  words  quoted.  Ancient  nations 
generally  heard  all  kinds  of  prophecies  in  the  rustling  of  the  forest 
trees,  the  chattering  of  birds,  etc.  The  spot  pointed  out  where  Korah 
and  his  band  had  been  swallowed  up  by  the  earth,  was  one  of  the  vol- 
canic rocks  to  be  found  in  the  desert. 


BAR    BAR   CHANA.  115 

descriptions  of  sea  monsters  told  by  a  mariner  to  please  his 
hearers.  He  takes  the  unusual  size  of  some  sea-monster  as  the 
starting  point  of  his  story,  and  exaggerates  it;  but  it  appears 
that  these  stories  were  applied  to  didactic  purposes,  to  express 
certain  truths  or  to  clothe  historical  facts  in  the  garb  of  popular 
fables. 

During  his  extended  journeys,  he  very  probably  met  with  the 
flamingo,  a  bird  distinguished  from  all  others  by  its  peculiar 
form.  It  is  of  a  bright-red  color,  and  although  not  larger  than 
a  goose,  it  appears,  owing  to  its  long  legs  and  neck  as  tall  as  a 
man,  and  often  measures  six  feet  from  the  end  of  its  claws  to  the 
tip  of  its  bill.  It  lives  around  the  Mediterranean  Sea.  This 
bird  suggested  the  beautiful  allegory  of  the  bird  which  stands 
with  its  feet  at  the  bottom  of  the  fathomless  sea,  but  whose  head 
reaches  the  heaven :  a  picture  of  man,  who  although  bound  by  his 
body  to  the  earth,  occupies  his  mind  with  celestial  matters. 

Also  the  giraffe  seems  to  be  referred  to  under  the  name 
HCm  NrniK  the  tallest  of  animals,  being  sometimes  twenty  feet 
from  the  hoofs  to  the  top  of  the  head. 

In  his  narrative  about  a  gigantic  frog,  which  is  swallowed  by  a 
serpent,  the  latter  in  its  turn  becoming  the  victim  of  a  bird,  he 
very  probably  refers  to  different  nationalities,  of  which  one 
became  the  prey  of  the  other.  He  designates  them,  after  the 
favorite  manner  of  the  ancients,  by  the  names  of  animals,  to 
which  they  were  somewhat  similar  in  certain  qualities. 

Nevertheless,  that  highly  hyperbolical  way  of  expressing  histor- 
ical facts  was  not  generally  admired,  and  E.  Papa,  when  he  heard 
the  story,  sarcastically  remarked,  "  If  I  had  not  seen  it,  I  would 
not  believe  it! " 

From  his  journeys  at  sea,  we  have  an  account  of  the  luminous 
appearance  of  the  latter,  and  in  order  to  express  in  this  connec- 
tion the  wonders  of  Clod,  who  has  enabled  man  to  subdue  the 
raging  of  the  billows  of  the  sea,  by  means  of  a  few  planks  and 
sticks,  he  related  the  following  allegorical  tale: 

"  Those  that  travel  on  the  sea  have  told  me  that,  on  the  head 
of  the  wave  which  threatens  to  engulf  the  ship,  there  appear 


116  THE   HYPEKBOLE   OF   THE   TALMUD. 

sparks  of  white  fire:  that  the  mariners  there  strike  the  sea  with 
a  staff,  on  which  is  written  the  name  of  the  Almighty,  and  it  is 
subdued." 

This  narrative  has  often  been  applied  to  illustrate  religious 
affairs.  The  sea  has  been  taken  for  the  world — "  the  world  is  a 
stormy  sea " — the  voyagers  are  the  men  who  sail  along  in  the 
ship  of  faith,  there  rises  a  foaming  wave — empty  knowledge  with 
its  din  and  foam,  which  threatens  the  vessel  with  shipwreck; 
but  the  name  of  God,  the  return  to  a  religious  life  which  glides 
over  the  waters,  restores  the  calm,  and  the  travellers  sail  safely 
till  they  anchor  in  the  harbor  of  eternal  rest. 

All  the  above  narratives,  not  otherwise  quoted,  appear  in 
Baba  Batra  73  and  74. 

9.  Scientific  Axioms. 

There  exist  numerous  sentences  containing  physical,  geogra- 
phical, or  medicinal  axioms,  which  were  considered  as  hyperboles, 
as  long  as  the  truth  contained  in  them  was  not  proved  by  modern 
science,  and  some  of  them,  which  appear  at  present  as  fabulous, 
might,  in  the  course  of  time,  prove  to  be  irrefutable  facts. 

A  passage  like  "I1N3  W  nniND  nam  "the  light  contains  several 
kinds  of  colors"  (Beracb.  52,  a)  was  unintelligible  until,  in 
recent  times,  the  nature  of  light  became  better  understood. 

The  Talmud  (Moed  Katon  vi.  2)  mentions  a  mole  (ni^K)  with- 
out eyes.  Naturalists  laughed  at  the  credulity  of  the  ancients;  . 
but  R.  Joseph  Schwartz,  who  added  to  his  acquaintance  with 
Hebrew  lore  a  knowledge  of  modern  sciences,  and  resided  six- 
teen years  in  the  Holy  Land,  re-affirms,  in  his  "Descriptive 
Geography  of  Palestine,"  the  statement  of  the  Talmudists.  This 
peculiar  animal  looks  like  a  new-born  cat;  has  a  large  thick, 
round  head,  two  small  ears,  but  no  eyes.  He  sent  a  specimen  to 
Munich. 

Another  curious  zoological  fact  is  stated  in  the  Talmud  (Cliu- 
lin  126,  a)  about  a  kind  of  mouse,  of  which  part  of  the  body  is 
alive,  while  the  other  is  yet  slime.  This  has  been  contradicted 
by  modern  naturalists.     Maimonides,  however,  represented  this 


SCIENTIFIC    AXIOMS.  117 

as  a  phenomenon  generally  known  and  confirmed  by  many  eye- 
witnesses, and  Greek  and  Roman  writers  assert  the  same  fact. 
iElian  relates  that  in  Thebais,  after  the  rain,  mice  became  visi- 
ble, which  partly  consist  of  flesh  and  partly  of  slime  (Compare 
Plinins  9,  58,  84,  Plutarch,  Vol.  II.,  p.  637). 

Another  curious  fact  is  related  in  Talmud  (Sabbath  53,  b) 
about  a  man  who  was  provided  with  breasts  of  a  female  and  en- 
abled to  nurse  an  infant.  Similar  cases  are  known  by  recent 
observations  about  inferior  animals,  as  reported  in  the  latest 
scientific  works  by  Buchner.  A  she-cat  died  and  left  several 
young  kittens.  The  he-cat  took  care  of  them,  and  after  a  few 
days  it  was  observed,  satisfied  the  thirst  of  the  young  ones  from 
his  teats.  Under  the  congenial  sun  of  the  Orient,  a  stronger 
development  of  certain  organs  of  the  human  body  is  possible,  and 
therefore  nothing  in  the  above  statement  need  appear  at  all  in- 
credible. 


118  ELIJAH    IN   THE   AGADAH. 


CHAPTER  XII. 
ELIJAH  IN  THE  AGADAH. 

The  history  of  events  in  the  life  of  persons,  whose  name  lived 
in  the  memory  of  the  people  as  benefactors  of  mankind,  were 
generally  embellished,  in  the  course  of  time,  by  numerous  legends; 
and  many  deeds  or  events,  either  real  or  fictitious,  clustered 
around  their  names.  Such  persons  sometimes  thereby  became 
the  heroes  of  mysterious  and  mythical  folklore. 

In  accordance  with  the  character  of  Talmudical  poetry  and  the 
religious  feelings  of  the  people,  a  name,  typifying  the  hero  of 
mythical  and  fantastical  Jewish  folklore,  had  to  be  selected  from 
the  Bible.  Where  could  they  find  a  more  suitable  name  than 
that  of  prophet  Elijah,  the  commencement  and  end  of  whose 
eventful  life  is  enwrapped  in  mystery? 

Without  further  introduction,  Elijah  appears  as  prophet,  ad- 
monishing Ahab,  and  after  having  been  mysteriously  fed,  and 
favored  with  the  most  remarkable  displays  of  divine  power  in  his 
behalf,  he  was  transposed  to  heaven  in  a  miraculous  manner. 

These  legends,  undoubtedly  extended  and  embellished  by  oral 
traditions  in  the  mouth  of  the  people,  made  the  memory  of  this 
prophet  so  highly  cherished  that,  at  a  later  period,  another  pro- 
phet (Malachi)  designates  him  as  the  forerunner  of  the  Messiah, 
'*  before  the  coming  of  the  great  and  dreadful  day  of  the  Lord  ' 
(Mai.  iii.  23  Hebrew  text;  iv.  6  author,  version). 

Although  all  prominent  names  in  the  Bible  became  subjects 
of  the  Agadah  and  the  centre  of  some  legends,  they  experienced 
an  entirely  different  treatment  from  that  of  Elijah. 

That  which  most  of  the  characters  of  the  Bible  suffered  at  the 
hands  of  the  Agadists  is  described  by  Dr.  M.  Sachs. 

"  The  love  with  which  all  concerning  the  hallowed  past  and  its 


ELIJAH    AS   A    HERO    OF  ANTIQUITY.  119 

heroes  was  seized,  made  these  latter  appear  as  conspicuous  models 
for  every  time.  The  present  could  only  be  understood  by  means 
of  the  past,  which  gave  an  answer  to  every  problem  of  the  present, 
and  foretold  what  was  to  be  expected  for  the  most  remote  future. 
The  distinct  predictions  of  prophetic  foresight  illuminated  the 
darkest  sky  with  flashes  of  light,  for  even  behind  the  obscurest 
clouds  the  sun  of  hope  and  belief  had  not  yet  set.  That  love 
brought  the  distinct  types  of  the  gray  past  so  near  to  the  mind  of 
the  people  that  they  communicated  with  them  in  an  animated 
and  confiding  manner.  They  saw  the  endeared  friend  brought 
into  immediate  proximity,  clad  in  novel  beauty,  and  from  the 
meagre  reports  of  real  history,  they  discovered  new  features,  not 
noticed  before,  to  enhance  his  excellence  and  to  increase  their 
love  for  him.  And  how  easy  was  it,  where  a  spot  blotted  the 
halo,  or  where  unyielding  truthfulness  found  blame  even  in  the 
illustrious,  to  mitigate,  if  not  to  entirely  obliterate  the  blemish. 
They  would  even  derive  from  the  apparent  stain  a  new  beauty 
for  the  precious  type.  For  what  situation  in  life,  for  what  en- 
tanglements of  the  mind  or  heart,  for  what  sufferings  and  mis- 
ery could  they  not  find  a  parallel  and  example  in  the  events  and 
experiences  of  the  pious  and  illustrious  of  past  ages!  In  such  a 
manner,  a  considerable  part  of  important  spiritual  material,  moral 
precepts,  and  religious  truths  was  gained  from  the  exposition  and 
application  of  Biblical  stories,  interwoven  and  entwined  with 
these  fantastical  conceptions.  "* 

While  the  Biblical  narrative  concerning  the  prophet  Elijah  was 
also  embellished  with  legends,  as  of  a  hero  of  antiquity,  there  was 
for  him  created,  in  contradistinction  to  the  other  Biblical  heroes, 
an  entirely  new  history  in  which  he  appears  as  the  "  Wandering 
Jew,"  still  active  and  interfering  with  the  affairs  of  the  present. 

We  would  err  in  supposing  that  the  Agadist,  who  introduces 
Elijah  in  the  narrative  as  acting  or  speaking,  always,  or  even  in 
most  cases,  thought  of  his  actual  appearance,  or  wished  to  impress 
such  conception  upon  the  reader.     Generally  his  name  is  nothing 

*  Sachs:  "  Stimmen  vom  Jordan  und  Euphrat." 


120  ELIJAH   IN   THE   AGADAH. 

more  than  the  representative  of  a  religions,  ethical,  or  metaphy- 
sical idea,  clothed,  according  to  Oriental  taste,  in  the  garb  of  a 
parable,  fable,  or  legend.  That  such  was  even  the  popular  con- 
ception of  his  repeated  appearances  is  curiously  confirmed  by  the 
fact  that,  to  this  day,  the  Jews  who  still  live  in  the  atmosphere 
of  Talmudical  studies,  are  accustomed  to  use  the  expression,  "  I 
met  the  prophet  Elijah  to-day,"  in  order  to  express  some  unex- 
pected success  in  their  business. 

The  re-appearance  of  Elijah,  foretold  by  Malachi,  was  confi- 
dently looked  forward  to  by  the  people,  and  his  task  as  the  fore- 
runner of  the  Messiah  is  even  more  distinctly  described  by  the 
later  Ben  Sirach  than  by  the  prophet. 

"  He  will  come  again  before  the  day  of  the  Lord, 
To  turn  the  hearts  of  the  children  to  their  fathers, 
And  to  bring  salvation  to  the  tribes  of  Jacob." 

(xlix.  10  Syriac  version.) 

In  the  Mishna,  his  appearance  is  almost  identified  with  the 
appearance  of  the  Messiah.  His  expected  activity  as  the  fore, 
runner  of  Messianic  times  is  expressed  in  the  Mishna  Edoyot  (vii. 
end). 

R.  Joshua  asserted  as  traditional  that  Elijah,  the  Tishbite,  at 
his  re-appearance,  would  not  decide  about  questions  of  pedigrees — 
which  was  at  the  time  of  E.  Joshua  an  agitated  question — but 
would  remove  such  families  as  were  forcibly  introduced  into  the 
community,  and  restore  to  their  rights  those  that  had  been  for- 
cibly expelled.  E.  Judah  asserted  that  his  task  would  only  con- 
sist in  restoring  the  expelled  families.  E.  Simon  taught  that  the 
main  purpose  of  his  re-appearance  would  be  to  settle  disputes  and 
strifes.  Other  sages  taught  that  his  only  task  would  consist  in  re- 
storing peace  to  the  world. 

About  the  commencement  of  the  Christian  era,  the  political 
situation  of  the  Jewish  state  became  almost  unendurable.  The 
Eoman  government  proceeded  with  the  greatest  arrogance,  the 
Jewish  aristocracy  was  cowardly  and  treacherous,  and  political 
quarrels  divided  the  nation.  Then  the  coming  of  Elijah  was 
longingly  expected.     It  was  on  this  account  that  both  John  the 


AS    A    REPRESENTATIVE    OF    STEBN    MORALITY.  121 

Baptist  and  the  founder  of  the  Christian  religion  were  taken  for 
Elijah  by  their  respective  adherents  (Mark  vi.  15;  viii.  28). 

When  the  Agadah  was  largely  cultivated  and  extended,  during 
the  first  century  of  the  Christian  era,  Elijah  also  assumes  a  more 
poetical  character,  and  is  introduced  as  present  in  all  places,  and 
as  the  protector  of  suffering  mankind,  especially  of  the  pious. 
No  country  is  outside  of  his  influence,  nothing  too  difficult  for 
his  saving  arm.  Wherever  the  innocent  are  oppressed,  he  ap- 
pears as  the  protecting  angel.  In  order  to  accomplish  his  pur- 
poses he  assumes  manifold  forms.  He  now  'appeared  in  the  sim- 
ple garb  of  a  man  (Berachot  58,  a),  then  as  an  Arab  (ibid.  6,  b), 
at  other  times  mounted  on  a  horse  (Sabbath  109,  b),  or  as  a  Ro- 
man  officer  (Abodah  Sarah  17,  b). 

From  the  numerous  legends  about  his  interference  for  the  suf- 
fering, we  will  select  the  following: 

"R.  Akiba  married  Rachel,  the  daughter  of  the  wealthy  Kalba 
Sabua,  despite  the  displeasure  of  her  father.  Kalba  ejected  his 
daughter  from  his  house  and  the  young  couple  lived  in  the  drea- 
riest want.  After  great  exertion  Akiba  procured  some  straw  for 
himself  and  wife  to  lie  on.  They  were  hardly  ready  to  enjoy  the 
straw,  when  a  beggar  knocked  at  the  door,  exclaiming,  '  0,  give 
me  a  little  straw,  my  wife  was  just  confined  of  a  boy,  and  I  have 
not  even  straw  for  her  to  lie  upon.'  Akiba  comforted  his  wife  . 
with  the  thought  that  there  existed  still  greater  misery  than  theirs, 
and  Elijah,  as  the  beggar,  had  accomplished  his  purpose  "  (Ne- 
darim  50,  a). 

Elijah  is  also  the  representative  of  stern  morality,  and  appears 
sometimes  to  rebuke  the  sages  for  a  neglect  in  the  exercise  of 
justice,  or  for  trespassing  a  moral  or  religious  law,  and  even  exe- 
cutes justice  himself. 

Ulla  ben  Kishar,  persecuted  on  account  of  a  political  offence, 
had  fled  into  Lydda  under  the  protection  of  R.  Joshua  ben  Levi. 
A  troop  of  soldiers  surrounded  Lydda  and  threatened  to  destroy 
the  city,  in  case  the  fugitive  should  not  be  surrendered.  In  this 
painful  alternative,  R.  Joshua  induced  the  accused  to  surrender 
of  his  own  accord.     He  based  his  action  upon  a  Mishnaic  law, 


122  ELIJAH   IN   THE   AGADAH. 

which  permits  the  surrender  of  a  man  specially  designated  as  the 
accused,  in  case  the  lives  of  many  should  be  endangered  by  his 
detention.  (Now  the  legend  comes  in.)  The  prophet  Elijah,  the 
ideal  of  pure  zeal  for  Judaism,  appeared  to  E.  Joshua  and  re- 
buked him  for  his  action.  He  should  not  merely  have  relied 
upon  the  legal  Mishnah,  but  should  have  remembered  the 
"Mishnah  of  the  Pious,"  which  expands  the  view  beyond  the 
horizon  of  prescribed  duty"  (Jer.  Terumot  viii.  and  Genesis  R. 
94  end). 

Elijah  entertained  familiar  intercourse  with  different  pious 
men,  but  was  very  particular  in  his  choice  of  company.  Of  two 
pious  men,  one  used  to  give  meals  to  his  servants  from  the  first 
course  only,  while  from  the  other  courses  they  received  simply 
what  was  left.  The  other  allowed  his  servants  to  partake  of 
every  round  of  the  meal.  The  latter  man  enjoyed  the  visits  of 
the  Tishbite,  while  the  less  hospitable  one  never  had  the  honor 
of  a  visit  (Ketubot  61,  a). 

A  pious  man  had  been  favored  by  frequent  visits  of  the  Tish- 
bite. Once  this  man  built  an  extension  to  his  house,  which  pre- 
vented the  voice  of  beggars  from  being  heard  inside,  and  conse- 
quently Elijah  never  called  again  (Baba  Batra  7,  b). 

A  man  brought  R.  Anan  a  present  of  some  small  fish.  "  What 
can  I  do  for  you?"  asked  the  Rabbi.  "  I  have  a  law  suit  I  wish 
you  to  decide."  The  Rabbi  would  have  nothing  to  do  with  the 
lawsuit,  as  even  an  offer  of  a  present  precluded  a  Rabbi  from 
acting  as  judge  in  a  case  in  which  the  party  that  offered  the  pres- 
ent was  interested.  The  man  insisted  that  he  should  accept  the 
present  as  a  free-will  offering  without  any  consideration.  R. 
Anan  advised  him  to  bring  his  lawsuit  before  R.  Nachman,  which 
the  man  did  with  the  statement  that  R.  Anan  could  not  be  judge 
in  that  case.  R.  Nachman,  in  consequence  of  this  statement, 
was  under  the  impression  that  the  man  was  a  relative  of  R.  Anan,. 
as  in  cases  of  relatives  nobody  was  allowed  to  act  as  judge.  When, 
therefore,  the  case  came  before  him,  he  treated  the  man  with 
greater  attention  than  he  otherwise  would  have  done,  to  the  pre- 
judice of  the  opposite  party.     Elijah,  as  friend  and  teacher  of 


ELIJAH    HELD   IN   HIGH   VENERATION.  123 

R.  Anan,  used  to  pay  him  repeated  visits,  but  in  consequence  of 
this  event,  he  did  not  appear  any  more  (Ketub.  105,  b). 

During  his  visits  to  the  pious,  he  sometimes  participated  in 
their  legal  debates,  explaining  to  them  some  laws,  or  allowing 
them  to  explain  complicated  problems  to  him  (Jebam.  63,  a;  Jer. 
Berachot  ix. ,  and  other  passages).  In  the  colleges  of  some  sages  he 
appeared  as  a  regular  student  (Ketub.  10G,  a;  Baba  Mezia  85,  b). 
He  would  sometimes  propound  questions,  and  with  great  atten- 
tion listen  to  the  advice  given  by  his  friends  (Berachot  3,  a;  29, 
b;  Ketub.  10G,  a).  But  although  we  notice  therefrom  that  the 
name  of  Elijah  was  held  in  high  veneration,  we  must  always 
remember  that  the  Talmudists  still  remained  sober  enough  not 
to  allow  this  Agadic  type  to  overstep  its  boundary;  to  allow  it 
the  least  influence  upon  judicial  or  ritual  questions  of  doubtful 
character,  or  to  take  Elijah  as  an  authority  for  practice.  He 
remained  with  them  a  poetical  type,  and  the  high  flight  of  their 
imaginations,  which  introduces  him  on  so  many  occasions  that 
we  are  almost  induced  to  believe  that  they  looked  upon  him  as  a 
real,  acting  person,  still  moving  on  earth,  could  never  mislead 
them  so  far  as  to  give  any  legal  authority  or  binding  effect  to 
assertions  put  into  his  mouth. 

With  the  farther  development  of  the  Agadah  in  the  latter  part 
of  the  Talmudical  times,  when  from  the  Persian  surroundings 
many  foreign  elements  were  adopted,  the  field  of  the  activity  of 
Elijah,  also,  was  farther  extended,  and  he  assumed  a  more  super- 
natural character.  The  sober  principles  of  former  sages,  which 
led  them  to  abstain  from  fantastic  speculations  about  the  hidden 
future,  were  more  and  more  disregarded,  and  the  Agadah  assumes 
a  more  enigmatical  form.  Then,  also,  Elijah  becomes  the  medi- 
ator between  terrestrial  and  celestial  affairs,  who  sometimes  lets 
his  friends  participate,  while  yet  alive,  in  the  pleasures  of  Para- 
dise. The  Tishbite  once  took  B.  Joshua  ben  Levi  up  to  that 
blissful  place  to  point  out  to  him  his  future  seat  there  (Sanh.  98, 
a).  After  the  death  of  E.  Joshua,  Elijah  introduced  him  to  his 
colleagues  residing  in  that  abode  (Ketubot  77,  b). 

The  prophet  Elijah  appeared  once  to  E.  Baroka  in  the  turmoil 


124  ELIJAH   IN   THE   AGADAH. 

of  the  market.  "Tell  me,  0  man  of  the  Lord,  E.  Baroka  said, 
who  amongst  this  busy  crowd  will  enjoy  salvation  in  future  life?  " 
"The  man  whom  thou  seest  walking  yonder  in  black  sandals, 
like  a  heathen  and  without  the  ritual  fringes,"  said  the  prophet. 
The  Rabbi  looked  amazed  that  a  man  openly  neglecting  the  reli- 
gious rites  should  still  have  such  a  claim.  He  approached  the 
person,  and  inquired  what  the  man's  business  was.  "  I  am  the 
keeper  of  the  prison,  and  as  such  I  maintain  special  guard  to  pre- 
vent the  intercourse  between  male  and  female  prisoners.  Re- 
cently I  saved  a  Jewish  girl  from  the  attacks  of  male  prisoners." 
The  Rabbi  further  inquired  why  he  neglected  religious  rites. 
The  man  excused  this  with  the  weighty  reason  that,  on  account 
of  such  neglect,  he  was  looked  upon  as  a  heathen,  and  thereby 
became  acquainted  with  the  evil  designs  of  the  enemies  of  the 
Jews.  Whenever  an  opportunity  offered,  he  informed  the  lead- 
ers of  the  Jewish  community  about  such  designs.  Two  other 
men  pointed  out  by  the  Tishbite  as  candidates  for  Paradise 
excited  still  greater  surprise  in  the  pious  student — two  harle- 
quins! The  Rabbi,  from  a  conversation  with  them,  learned  that 
they  are  merry  people,  and  whenever  they  saw  men  covered  with 
mourning  or  tortured  by  mental  pains,  they  endeavored  to  rouse 
them  by  merry  sayings,  and  to  quiet  them.  Often  by  humorous 
stories  they  had  re-established  peace  and  harmony  between  con- 
tending parties"  (Taanit  22,  a).  The  important  truism  "Out- 
ward appearance  is  often  very  deceitful "  is  most  beautifully 
exemplified  by  this  legend. 

After  the  close  of  the  Talmud,  and  especially  with  that  class 
of  later  scholars  whose  minds  became  enveloped  in  mystical 
extravagances,  the  foregoing  characteristics  of  Elijah  were  fur- 
ther spun  out,  and  still  more  enlarged  in  legends.  The  Islamit" 
ish  and  Christian  legendaries  also  took  hold  of  him,  and  while 
following  the  Agadah  as  the  prototype,  extended  it  considerably. 
They  also  invented  for  him  a  pedigree,  unknown  to  the  Agadic 
literature.  Many  stories  about  his  miraculous  birth  were  in- 
vented. He  became  the  founder  of  a  Capuchin  order  (Carmelites), 
and  at  last  a  saint  of  the  Greek  Catholic  and  Roman  Catholic 
Church. 


GREEK    MYTHS   IN"   THE   TALMUD.  125 


CHAPTER  XIII. 
FOREIGN  MYTHS. 

1.  Greek  Myths  in  the  Talmud. 

The  numerous  legends  and  myths  preserved  in  the  Talmud 
and  Midrash  form  one  of  the  most  interesting  features  of  Agadic 
literature,  and  many  of  them  possess  a  highly  historical  interest 
as  relics  of  ancient  culture.  But  while  some  reflect  the  national 
spirit  and  everything  actively  moving  and  engaging  it,  others 
evince  the  foreign  influence  which  no  nationality  can  successfully 
escape. 

The  ethical  or  psychological  vein  which  underlies  many  legends 
and  myths,  as  beautiful  representations  of  captivating  ideas, 
secure  for  them  a  willing  ear  among  every  nation,  and  especially 
among  the  Jews,  who  were  always  open  to  foreign  influences.  At 
every  closer  approach  and  intercourse  such  legends  and  myths 
were  transferred  and  interchanged  from  one  nation  to  the  other, 
and  generally  also  transformed  and  embellished  according  to  the 
views  and  tastes  of  the  respective  people. 

As  a  prominent  instance  we  may  cite  the  Alexander  legends  in 
Talmud  and  Midrash,  of  which  some  parts  were  brought  over 
from  abroad,  and  exist  also  in  the  Greek  literature,  while  we  may 
regard  it  as  very  probable  that,  as  with  most  other  nations  sub- 
jected to  the  great  Macedonian,  the  Jews  also  spun  around  his 
person  legends  originating  with  themselves. 

More  remarkable  is  the  fact  that  mythical  stories,  closely  con- 
nected with  Greek  mythology,  were  sometimes  quoted  by  the 
Rabbis  in  their  lectures,  and,  although  they  appear  modified  to 
illustrate  an  ethical  religious  thought,  they  still  retain  enough  of 
their  original  stamp  to  demonstrate  their  Hellenic  character. 

In  Koheleth  Rabbah  (i.  14),  R.  Abba  bar  Kahana  applies  the 


126  foreign  myths. 

legend  of  Hercules  at  the  crossway  to  the  Biblical  passage,  "And 
thou  shalt  choose  the  life  "  (Deut.  xxx.  19). 

"  A  man  sat  at  a  crossway,  where  one  road  began  in  a  blooming 
plain,  but  led  into  a  stony  road,  abounding  in  thorns  and  thistles; 

while  the  other  had  a  very  discouraging  beginning  among  thorns 
and  stones,  but  led  into  a  fertile  land.  The  man  at  the  crossway 
advised  the  inexperienced- youth  to  choose  the  latter  road." 

It  has  been  already  noticed  by  the  ancients  that  by  illustrations 
from  practical  life,  in  the  forms  of  proverbs,  the  divine  laws 
become  better  impressed  upon  the  mind  of  common  people  than 
they  would  have  been  in  their  abstract  form.  Solomon,  in  com- 
posing such  proverbs,  was  especially  praised,  and  among  other 
similes  illustrating  his  great  merits,  K.  Nachman  relates  about  a 
great  palace  with  many  entrances  and  windings,  which  rendered 
it  difficult  to  find  the  way  from  its  interior  to  the  entrance.  A 
wise  man  fixed  a  clew  of  thread  to  the  entrance,  which  enabled 
every  one  to  penetrate  the  windings  of  the  palace  and  to  find  his 
way  out  again"  (Shir  Hash.  E.  beginning).  We  have  here  a 
clear  application  of  the  story  of  the  labyrinth  and  of  the  legend 
of  Ariadne,  providing  Theseus  from  Crete  with  a  clew  of  thread 
to  enable  him  to  enter  the  labyrinth  where  lay  the  Minotaur  that 
he  slew. 

Greek  legends  speak  of  the  Danaides  who,  in  punishment  for 
their  crimes,  were  condemned  in  the  lower  world  to  draw  water 
continually  with  perforated  vessels.  This  story  is  used  by  E. 
Levi  as  follows  : 

"A  person  hired  laborers  to  fill  a  perforated  kettle  with  water. 
The  simpletons  were  amazed  at  the  useless  work  and  said,  '  Why 
should  we  undertake  such  vain  labor  ?  If  we  put  the  water  in 
one  side  it  immediately  leaks  out  at  the  other.'  The  more  intel- 
ligent said,  'We  shall  receive  our  reward  for  every  emptied 
bucket.'  Such  is  the  case  with  the  study  of  the  Torah.  The 
silly  persons  do  not  even  try  to  begin,  in  fear  lest  they  will  forget 
what  they  have  learned,  while  the  more  intelligent  hope  for 
heavenly  reward"  (Vayikra  E.  c.  19). 

Penelope,  the  wife  of  Ulysses,  is  put  up  by  the  Greek  legendary 


THE    GREEK    LEGENDARY    MODEL   OF   VIRTUE.  127 

as  a  model  of  conjugal  and  domestic  virtue.  Twenty  years  had 
passed  away  since  Ulysses  left  for  the  seat  of  the  Trojan  war. 
Meanwhile  the  palace  at  Ithaca,  where  she  resided,  was  crowded 
with  numerous  and  importunate  suitors,  aspiring  to  the  hand  of 
the  queen.  Her  relations  also  urged  her  to  abandon  all  thoughts 
of  the  probability  of  her  husband's  return.  Penelope  exerted 
every  resource  which  her  ingenuity  could  invent  to  postpone  the 
date  of  her  decision,  and  at  last  her  heart  was  gladdened  by  the 
return  of  her  beloved  husband. 

This  beautiful  legend,  although  somewhat  changed  for  the  sake 
of  its  homiletic  purposes,  was  made  use  of  by  E.  Yochanan  in  the 
following  manner  : 

That  Rabbi  said  in  reference  to  lamentations  (iii.  21),  "This  I 
recall  to  my  mind,  therefore  have  I  hope." 

"  A  king  married  a  woman  and  made  her  magnificent  promises. 
Soon  after  he  was  obliged  to  leave  her  and  to  undertake  a  pro- 
tracted journey.  He  stayed  away  for  a  long  time,  and  the 
neglected  wife  was  repeatedly  offended  by  her  neighbors,  who 
said,  '  The  king  has  left  thee,  he  will  never  return. '  The  poor 
woman  wept  and  lamented,  but  always  regained  comfort  in  the 
expectation  of  the  fulfilment  of  her  husband's  magnificent  pro- 
mises. After  a  long  time  the  king  at  last  returned,  and  exclaimed, 
'  My  beloved  wife,  I  am  really  astonished  at  thy  faithful  perseve- 
rance during  so  many  years.'  '  My  lord  and  king,'  she  rejoined, 
'  if  thy  promises  had  not  sustained  me,  I  had  long  ago  succumbed 
to  the  advice  of  my  neighbors.'  This  woman,  such  is  the  beau- 
tiful application,  represents  Israel,  who,  in  spite  of  all  tempta- 
tions and  enticements  made  by  other  nations,  faithfully  bears  the 
long  separation  from  his  God,  hoping  for  the  fulfilment  of  the 
glorious  promises  contained  in  the  Holy  Scriptures  "  (Echa  rab- 
bah  to  iii.  21). 

The  Phenix,  a  bird  fabled  among  the  Greeks  as  existing  single, 
and  as  rising  again  from  its  own  ashes,  appears,  according  to  the 
Septuagint*  and  the  Talmud  and  Midrash,  already  in  Job  (xxix. 

*  According  to  Delitzsch's  emendation,  who  proved  that  an  interpolator 
changed  by  mistake  the  phenix  into  palm-branch. 


128  FOREIGN    MYTHS. 

18),  "  Then,  I  thought,  I  shall  dissolve  in  my  nest,  and  I  shall 
renew  my  days  like  the  phenix  (Choi)."  The  Midrash  Yalkut 
explains  this  passage,  "All  animals  partook  of  the  forbidden 
fruit  which  Eve  distributed  among  them  except  the  Clwl  (phenix),. 
who  refused  to  eat  it,  and  thereby  preserved  his  immortality,  and 
renews  his  life  now  at  every  millennium." 

Both,  however,  the  Jews  and  the  Greeks,  received  their  con- 
ception of  that  mythical  bird  from  the  Phoenicians,  whose  national 
god  he  appears  to  have  been.  Dr.  K.  Kohler  finds  a  description 
of  the  phenix  in  the  following  address  of  Ezekiel  (xxviii.  11): 

"Son  of  man,  take  up  a  lamentation  upon  the  king  of  Tyrus, 
and  say  unto  him,  Thus  said  the  Eternal  God  :  Thou  perfection 
in  form,  full  of  wisdom,  and  perfect  in  beauty.  Thou  hast  been 
in  Eden,  the  garden  of  God:  every  precious  stone  was  thy  cover- 
ing, carnelian,  topaz,  and  the  diamond,  the  beryl,  the  onyx,  and 
the  jasper,  the  sapphire,  the  emerald  and  the  carbuncle,  and  gold 
the  workmanship  of  thy  fans  and  thy  wings.  In  the  day  that 
thou  wast  created,  they  were  fastened,  thou  cherub  with  long- 
stretched  wings,  and  I  have  set  thee  upon  the  holy  mountain  of 
God,  and  thou  hast  walked  up  and  down  in  the  midst  of  the 
stones  of  fire.  Thou  wast  perfect  in  thy  ways  from  the  day  that 
thou  wast  created  till  iniquity  was  found  in  thee.  .  .  .  There- 
fore will  I  bring  forth  a  fire  from  the  midst  of  thee,  it  shall 
devour  thee,  and  I  will  bring  thee  to  ashes  upon  the  earth  in  the 
sight  of  all  of  them  that  behold  thee.  All  they  that  know  thee 
among  the  people  shall  be  astonished  at  thee.  Thou  shalt  become 
a  terror  without  being  any  more  immortal."  Here  Phoenicia 
appears  under  the  figure  of  phenix,  as  the  other  nations  are  often 
represented  under  the  figure  of  some  animal. 

While  in  the  foregoing  examples  of  the  use  of  Greek  myths  we 
find  them  applied  to  illustrate  some  ethical  religious  thought,  in 
the  following  statement  concerning  the  relation  between  the  sons 
of  Elohim,  who  married  the  daughters  of  men  and  Azazel,  a 
compilation  of  various  myths  appears,  evincing  only  a  very  high 
flight  of  imagination. 

"  When  the  corrupt  diluvian  generation  began  to  flourish,  two- 


ISTAHER,    THE    BABYLONTC    VENUS.  129 

angels  named  Shamchazi  and  Azazel  stepped  before  God  and  said, 
'  Why  didst  thou  create  the  world  and  place  man  so  high? '  The 
Lord  answered,  '  Should  you,  accusers,  dwell  upon  earth  and  he 
possessed  of  the  propensity  of  evil,  you  would  commit  still  greater 
outrages  than  the  children  of  man.'  The  angels  thereon  begged 
for  permission  to  take  up  their  residence  among  men,  in  order  to 
prove  their  immovable  holiness  to  the  glory  of  the  divine  name. 
But  they  had  scarcely  alighted  upon  the  earth  when  they  were 
captivated  by  the  beautiful  daughters  of  man,  and  were  incapable 
of  overcoming  their  evil  inclinations.  Shamchazi  conceived  an 
ardent  passion  for  a  maiden  by  the  name  of  Istaher.  To  elude 
his  insidious  snares,  the  maiden  endeavored  to  elicit  from  her 
persecutor  the  secret  of  the  divine  name,  the  enunciation  of  which 
would  enable  him  to  re-ascend  into  heaven.  He  complied  with 
her  request,  whereupon  she  pronounced  the  sacred  name  and 
flew,  pure  and  immaculate,  towards  heaven.  In  reward  for  this 
sublime  constancy  the  Most  High  assigned  the  virtuous  maiden 
to  a  place  in  the  constellation  of  Bimah  (i.  e.,  the  pleiades).'' 
After  stating  different  adventures  of  these  angels  and  their  sons, 
the  Midrash  closes,  "  Shamchazi  at  last  did  penance  and  sus- 
pended himself,  as  self -punishment,  between  heaven  and  earth,  in 
such  a  way  that  his  feet  were  turned  up  wards  and  his  head  down- 
wards, in  which  position  he  is  constantly  kept.  Azazel,  on  the 
contrary,  remained  a  prey  of  corruption,  and  still  continues,  in 
order  to  ensnare  mankind,  to  provide  the  women  with  all  kinds 
of  enticing  cosmetics.  He  is  the  Azazel  on  whose  shoulders,  apart 
from  the  expiatory  sacrifice  dedicated  to  God,  the  sins  of  Israel 
were  put  as  an  additional  burden  on  the  day  of  atonement." 

Thus  far  our  Midrash.  Let  us  first  consider  the  name  Istaher 
(nriDD'x)  applied  to  the  maiden  who  withstood  the  temptings  of  the 
fallen  angel,  and  in  reward  therefor  was  transferred  to  the  plei- 
ades. Istaher  is  the  Babylonic  Venus,  about  whom  Dr.  A.  Schrader 
recently  discovered  a  very  interesting  epic  poem  from  the  so-called 
' '  Sardanapalus  Library. "  This  name  is  here  employed  to  designate 
Maia  (the  splendid),  who,  according  to  Grecian  mythology,  was 

one  of  the  seven  daughters  of  Atlas  that  were  placed  by  Jupiter 
9 


130  FOEEIGN   MYTHS. 

among  the  stars,  and  formed  the  constellation  named  Pleiades. 
This  Mala,  too,  like  her  sisters,  is  persecuted  by  the  passionate 
loye  of  Orion,  a  powerful  giant,  until  Jupiter  takes  compassion 
on  her,  and  places  her  in  the  heavens.     The  two  angels,  Sham- 
chazi  and  Azazel,  are  the  types  of  the  Dioscuri,  the  two  insepar- 
able sons  of  Jupiter,  Castor  and  Pollux.     These  two  brothers, 
ever  associated  in  their  exploits,   marched  forth,  according  to 
legend,  for  the  purpose  of  conquering  wives  to  themselves.     In 
one  of  these  expeditions,  they  became  engaged  in  a  contest,  in 
which  Castor  lost  his  life.     Upon  the  death  of  the  beloved  bro- 
ther, Pollux  is  plunged  in  the  deepest  grief,  and  is  only  comforted 
when  Jupiter  grants  his  request  to  be  permitted  to  cede  to  his 
slain  brother  half  of  his  immortality.     According  to  this  arrange- 
ment, the  two  brothers  alternately  abide  one  day  in  the  Olympos 
and  the  other  in  Hades.     This  alternate  sojourn  in  heaven  and  in 
the  nether  world  is  symbolically  represented  by  heathen  antiquity 
by  two  heads,  one  of  which  stands  in  an  upright,  and  the  other 
in  an  inverted  position,  like  a  person  standing  upon  his  head. 
The  latter  position  is  the  image  of  Shamchazi,  suspended  between 
heaven  and  earth,  with  feet  upward  and  head  downward,  and 
in  both  instances  this  peculiar  position  is  attributed  to  a  self- 
infliction,  arising  in   one  case  from  fraternal  love,  in  the  other 
from  penitence. 

Besides  the  mythological  legends  of  the  Greeks,  sometimes, 
also,  the  plastic  creations  of  Grecian  imagination  were  applied  in 
the  Agadic  literature.  The  expression  v^-io  aop  (bitter  destruc- 
tion: Deut.  xxxii.  24)  is  in  the  Agadah  explained  as  a  demon, 
and  described  by  R.  Yochanan  as  a  monster  covered  with  scales, 
and  like  Argils,  possessing  numerous  eyes.  R.  Lakish  insisted 
that  he  had  only  one  eye  upon  the  heart,  but  with  the  power  of 
the  shield  of  Medusa,  killing  all  who  looked  upon  it  (Echa  rab- 
bah  to  i.  3).  This  deadly  demon  is  the  personification  of  the 
great  heat  of  summer. 

The  word  am  m  Job  (xxvi.  12)  is  taken  by  some  exegetists  as 
sea-monster,  probably  crocodile;  the  Agadists  apply  it  directly 
to  Oceanus,  the  Grecian  god  of  the  sea  (Shemot  R.  c,  15). 


EGYPTIAN    MYTHS.  131 

To  the  passage  "the  horse  and  his  rider  has  he  thrown  into 
the  sea"  (Exodus  xv.  1)  the  Mechilta  remarks:  "It  is  asserted 
that  the  horse  was  bound  to  the  rider,  and  the  rider  bound  to 
the  horse,  and  went  down  inseparably  to  the  bottom  of  the  sea." 
The  author  of  this  explanation  very  likely  had  the  Centaur  in 
mind. 

We  also  find  peculiar  views  which  undoubtedly  passed  from 
the  Greek  into  the  Jewish  circle  of  ideas.  The  story  of  the  Sun- 
pond  is  largely  found  in  classical  antiquity.  While  Homer  made 
the  sun  rise  from  a  pond  (Odyss.  iii.  1),  ^Eschylus  also  tells  of  a 
western  pond.  The  Jewish  imagination  has  this  extended,  and 
supposes  a  pond  accompanying  the  sun  on  his  daily  circuit  in  the 
heavens.  "The  sun  is  surrounded  by  a  tegument,  this  again  by 
a  sphere,  while  below  is  a  water-pond  (d>o  ^  nana)  to  abate  his 
glowing  fire." 

2.  Egyptian  Myths. 

Did  you  ever  behold  a  human  being  in  his  last  agonies,  when 
life  still  lingered  in  his  system,  ready  to  depart  at  one  moment, 
then  again  reanimating  the  sinking  form  as  if  loath  to  depart, 
and  at  last  leaving  it  lifeless  clay  ?  Was  not  your  inmost  soul 
moved  by  indescribable  emotions  and  mysterious  feelings  ?  And 
if  you  ever  witnessed  such  a  sight,  will  you  wonder  that  such 
emotions  in  former  times,  and  also  among  the  less  enlightened 
classes  of  the  present  times,  open  the  heart  and  the  mind  to  all 
kinds  of  superstitions  ?  It  is  in  connection  with  the  dying  and 
the  dead  that  most  superstitious  notions  found  admittance,  and 
then  were  transplanted  from  one  nation  to  the  other. 

No  nation  was  more  prolific  in  such  superstitious  notions  than 
the  Egyptians,  and  none  supplied  the  other  nations  with  a  greater 
number  of  legends  about  the  mysteries  of  death. 

We  shall,  however,  not  extend  upon  this  theme,  but  only  cite 
a  legend  about  the  death  of  Moses,  illustrating  the  Egyptian 
influence  upon  the  Agadah. 

The  mysterious  narrative  of  the  death  of  Moses  formed  a  theme 
for  the  Agadist  to  embellish  by  the  most  fantastical  colors,  and 


132  FOREIGN    MYTHS. 

even  to  admit  foreign  conceptions  into  the  poetical  recital  of  his 
death.  From  the  highly  poetical,  but  still  sober  conception  of 
the  ancient  rabbis,  "  Moses  died  by  the  kiss  of  the  Lord,"  later 
rabbis  spun  out  picturesque  descriptions  of  his  death-bed  scenes, 
of  which  we  select  the  following  (Midr.  Debarim,  end): 

"After  God  had  promised  Moses  to  perform  in  person  the 
office  of  Samael,  the  angel  of  death,  Moses  prepared  for  the 
unavoidable  event  in  the  manner  of  Seraphim.  The  Most  High 
then  came  down  from  the  farthest  heaven  to  receive  the  soul  of 
His  beloved.  Three  archangels,  Michael,  Gabriel,  and  Sagsagel 
accompanied  God  on  that  important  descent.  Michael  prepared 
the  bed  for  Moses,  Gabriel  spread  out  a  cover  of  Bissus  at  the 
head,  and  Sagsagel  one  at  the  foot.  While  Michael  posted  himself, 
on  one  side,  and  Gabriel  on  the  other,  the  Most  High  received 
the  soul  of  Moses  by  a  divine  kiss,  and  carried  it  off  towards 
heaven." 

We  have  in  this  description  a  discernible  imitation  of  Egyptian 
conceptions  of  the  dying  scenes  of  the  pious.  "  The  four  genii 
of  death,  Amsath,  Huphy,  Daumatuf,  and  Quabasanuph  remain 
as  guardians  with  the  corpse  ;  over  every  part  of  the  body  of  the 
deceased  a  special  god  is  put  as  guardian  and  protector."* 

The  following  myth,  about  the  discovery  of  Joseph's  sarcopha- 
gus by  Moses,  has  a  similar  origin  in  Egyptian  conceptions, 
intermixed  with  Jewish  legends  in  Mechilta  (to  Exodus  xiii.  19). 

"  How  did  Moses  discover  the  burying  place  of  Joseph  ?  It  is 
related  that  Serah,  the  daughter  of  Asher,  one  of  the  contempo- 
raries of  Joseph,  was  still  alive,  and  Moses  inquired  of  her  the 
place  in  which  to  find  the  sarcophagus  of  Joseph.  She  informed 
him  that  the  Egyptians  had  put  his  body  in  a  leaden  coffin  and 
sunk  it  into  the  Nile.  Moses  went  to  the  river,  threw  a  stone  in 
it,  and  exclaimed,  '  Joseph,  Joseph,  the  time  has  arrived  for  the 
fulfilment  of  the  oath,  which  the  Lord  has  sworn  unto  Abraham, 
to  redeem  his  children.     Give  honor  to  the  Eternal,  the  God  of 

*This  myth  has  also  found  an  imitation  in  St.  John,  "  And  seeth  two 
angels  in  white,  sitting,  the  one  at  the  head,  and  the  other  at  the  feet "" 
(xx.  12). 


DISCOVERY    OF   JOSEPHS    SARCOPHAGI'S.  133 

Israel,  and  do  not  delay  our  departure.  If  thou  shalt  refuse  to 
appear  we  shall  be  free  of  our  oath.'  Thereupon  the  sarcophagus 
•appeared  upon  the  surface  and  Moses  carried  it  off."  (Compare 
Sota  13,  a.  Tos.  Sota  c.  4.) 

Now  compare  with  this  narrative  the  statement  of  Plutarch 
(De  Is.  et  Osir.  22,  3).  "Typhon  had  once  induced  Osiris,  his 
brother,  to  lay  down  in  a  chest ;  then  nailed  it  up,  threw  over  it 
hot  lead,  and  threw  the  chest  into  the  Nile.  Isis,  informed 
thereof,  for  a  long  time  sought  the  corpse,  when  at  last  informed 
by  a  child  about  the  direction  the  swimming  coffin  had  taken, 
she  discovered  and  hid  it. "  * 

*  For  a  further  scientific  development  of  this  and  similar  myths  from 
one  nation  to  another  see  ' '  Guedernann  s  My thenmischung  in  der 
Hagada." 


APPENDIX. 


PEAYEES.  137 

CHAPTER  III. 

LITURGY. 

1.   Peayeks  (Page  24). 

irtfDK  rbw  irn^  ^  yiebn  pan  tt  i. 

rmtfon  jbpdi  yn  pra  yn  nan£  j?n  n'^o  yn 
pi  ma  p  wn»  pa  n&p  pi  bya£i  nzrp  pno 

:  ma  p  lrae? 

uaina  pffnp  irrfe«  •*  yxbn  pm  %t  2. 
DntAna  ubiaa  nanni  mjni  ohm  roron  nana 
:py  pn  upbn  D^m  mpm  rmna  ubid  rrhsm 

nwj&  iiivw  "pje&  ym  n^  Dtobwn  pan  3.  % 
nrate  nny^i  no^ai^  niNP  aayc  ^di  -plan 
*>pn  rwyb  awji  an*£  uV^np  -paste  pan  w 

:  ate  aa^a  -pian 

-jmina  "utenritf  v^n  ^  -paste  pan  tpi  4. 
■h^  *6i  not  n^?  *6  "wan  bw  Tmaoa  ^pam 
n^  ria  pjiai  jna  n^  *6i  p*-oi  h^  «9i  pi? 
vjpam  yn  nan^i  yn  Dnwa  ^pmi  -)b  nayn^.nb 
dv  ^aai  am  ^:m  -pb'iya  aies  nanai  z:icd  nra 
:  wn  te  nryai  -p  rya  D^enn^i  non^i  jn^ 

ma1?  n«  bi£i  -pann  nynb  ijv&k  ^  uran  b. 
lraiseDD  upnm  a^ifco  rov6  iA  ntem  *]n«n^ 
yapn  nan^D  lrrnmwi  "jana  m*oa  u:ehi 
-pT  rpn  a^nn  byi  nascr  -pjn  ^y  a^yinm 
nmiaaai  -jtevi  ppTiai  -p^y  p^aa  ny-ia  "inoeH 
anco  -jn^D  ^  p^  n:  nanyai  -nay  nr6  pp 

:  royn  nn«i  *wa 


138  appendix. 

3.  Songs  and  Hymns. 

c.  Illuminating  and  Torch  Dances. 

(Our  Fathers,  etc.) 

♦  ^  by*n  bx  Drp-iiriN  •  run  Dipoa  v»n»  tinman 
uki  •  dbe^  "Dip  D'nnnro  niam  •  ranp  d.tjdi 

(The  Pious,  etc.) 

—  :  npjID  'SWfcO  D'TDrt 

:  irnupT  nx  ner^a  *6sr  unrfr  new 
:  irnn^  na  meat?  irhupt  n»K 

:  1^  ^nD,1  aiBT1  NOW  "'Dl  «(Dn    fc6ltf  'E  "HEW 

(Hillel's  Song.) 

,}«a  hzn  jaa  "uk  ok 

?  JfcO  ''D  |*C  UK  p«  DK1 

♦  tiik  no^io  ^n  •  am^  ukp  wipnb 

♦  now  na'pn  p)W 

♦  -jrva^  Kiaa  •  *rvab  wan  nnN  qk 

:-prva  ^n  aiaa  *6  uk  ♦  wa  ba  «an  *6  nna  dm 


HISTORY.  139 

5.  History 

(King  John,  etc.) 

•oioatf  rvbrnab  mpno  -jten  wa  hewd 
nnn^  nc£>  n^n  lmtnai  owa  dw  dp  woi 
on!?  ion  •  bxiBn  ^rn  bab  tnpi  nb^  *  rfcru 
crpira  vn»  pn  a^nfe  D^baia  v>n  irniaK 
nn  a^nte  ba&j  uk  r)N  empDn  rva  p:m 
am  be?  nunbip  by  a^nfe  lbum  $  lrniaab 
bybai  m  2b  yb  et»n  nnx  din  dp  rrn  :  ibaw 
KTjnB  p  iwbK  iD&m  :  idp  NTyiB  p  iij^ki 
•  -]^u  d'W-is  bp  nab  -jten  \^r  •  -[ten  "wb 
Drib  o^pn  •  fry  pap  ysa  Dnb  Dpn  •  hto  pidi 
kth:i  p  rmrpi  nna  jpi  dp  rr»n  :  m  pap  po 
w  •  "jten  wb  kthj  p  rrnrp  nbtn  •  122; 
ijnib  ruma  nna  run  mate  nna  -]b  an  *jten 
:  mroa  rvapj  idk  d^din  rnp  :  pn«  bp 
•osna  b^w  -nan  ib-ia*1! :  nudj  &61  nann  Dpia*1! 
"jten  w  *  "jten  "wb  NTyia  p  irobR  lorn 
jpoi  "]te  Kin  nnai  in  wn  -]a  b*op^ap  onn 
ycip  nnN  dk  •  nvyx  noi  .  -jn  wn  *p  bra 
ntmb  p  1'yba  *r  by  njnn  ysim :  dddd  Tiuyb 
:  acinus  Dbiun  nm  b*op^  ^an  ba  ijn.Ti 


140 


APPENDIX. 


CHAPTER  V. 

1.  Funeral  Orations  and  Elegies. 

(How  fallible,  etc.) 

ipni:  pri  pew  rczrA  minb  nnvv 

(Here  is  one  for  whom,  etc.) 

b^annb  nw  n.  by  rrrab  nw  m  by 

D.T:nb  onnra  dttjdi  D\no  D"obD 

brp:nb  ~ct  dytjidi  D^nD  crT&yy 

:  ib  -jbm  ablins  nHicnrrbD  b^j  jcopn  bwD^ 

(How  can  the  lowly  hyssop,  etc.) 

rpnbip  nbsj  dtno  dk 

Tpn  "DirK  lpjr  no 

nbyn  ram  jrvib  ox 

ppin  ^n  to?  no 

ran  nb=::  p^eto  !?ma 

:  d'd:  ^  wy  no 

(Spend  not  the  sighs,  etc.) 

:  nmab  wi  nnunb  ktip 

(A  learned  scion,  etc.) 

niDnbb  nco  ioyi  bmp  nby  D'WBr  yn 
H53»d  son  nn&yi  ^toed  n  i*nb  Y?Min  -nepi  nap 

ropw  upo  ocm  inbiy  by  pjirp 

:  ntcnn  nb^D  Dm  notyi 

:  p^ai  ■'pj  pb*  rba  soa  men  ew  nnny  rn 


FUNEJtAL   OKATIONS   AND    ELEGIES.  141 

(Bend  ye  majestic  Palms,  etc.) 

(In  Babylon,  etc.) 

rnVn  rnn  ny:^  pa 

d'wsw  nbij  '•as  pa 

npn  moa  nb  a:  "na 

:  nmon  "bz  mix  p 

(Mortals  and  Angels,  etc.) 
(Mortals  and  Angels,  etc.) 

rvnan  ninta  picn 

d^«^k  ^  p"1  iron 

:  mnibrrnN  iccorn 


142  APPENDIX. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

4.  Pkovekbs  of  Ben  Sika  in  Talmud. 
(A  good  mate,  etc.,  page  78.) 

♦  jron  Drfra  im  pTD  raio  runs  raio  ton 
NDnn*1  irrao  racnr  nbv^   njna  njn  ton 

♦  d^bm  to*1  ncoc  n^»3  nw  nc  ton 

*  nrrropa  "obn  p  p  tond  -p^  ovbn 

•  -Den  p  icy  *pnb  rbn  bw  con  ^ 
♦  rronn  ^o  d^sjii  miron  d"qi  ton  -iKna  *o 

♦  nny  n^nb  D^non  b^n  ^c  rn  D^ai 
D.Tra  p  ^iy  n^d  afos  nbm  tw  yi^D 

(Honor  thy  physician,  etc.,  page  79.) 

:  )b  -ptD^n  *6tf  iu  "jkdti  nN  -qd 

(Do  not  worry,  etc.,  page  79.) 

•  uv  ih^  no  yin  n1?  ^r  ito  my  nsn  ^« 
ribpirow  D^iy  ^y  -wcd^d  n^dji  ura  nn£  hide? 

(God  causes  the  remedial,  etc.,  page  79.) 

.  flND  p  D'DD  Plb»n  vfc* 

pmo  npnn  dhdi  pooh  n«  netid  ae-in  ana 

: nnpion  nN 

(Four  things  are,  etc.,  page  80.) 

•  jrbaiD  njnn  pt  nyma 
onei  pjwd  jpn  proo  tewi  ruo  H  p  I1?** 

:  -nan  bi?  n*onD 


PKOVERBS   OF   BEN   SIRA.  143 

(What  is  too  great,  etc.,  page  80.) 

♦  npnn  hi  "]dd  pro  tsimn  *?a  -po  ^-ijq 
:  nnnwa  pM  ^  pro  piann  mcnnp  hdd 

(Before  thou  vowest,  etc.,  page  80.) 
(My  son,  if  thou,  etc.,  page  80.) 

•  -ft  aw  ^  en  dn  "»ja 
♦  nononn  Rich  pw  awn  ?\wa  pn  ^a 

♦  -]*?  it  ^  !?w&a  pin  ^  n^  niaan  oni 
Mm  p*pna  ttn  m^n  "witf?  d?dvi  d-in  ^a 

' :  p!?au 

(When  in  distress,  pray  not,  page  80.) 

:  mv  ^  iaa 

(A  daughter  is,  etc.,  page  81.) 

♦  nW?a  jet  *6  mnto  nib  hjided  ma*6  na 

•  ruin  ndp  nnnjna  nnsnn  not  nnijopa 

-  D^a  r6  itp  *6  not  n«Eu  Keun  *6  not  ma 

:  tobo  ncwn  not  nrpTn 

(The  glory  of  God,  etc.,  page  81.) 

:  anioa  d^sm*  Tin  d*in  dt6n  nn 

(If  on  a  burning,  etc.,  page  82.) 

:  nam  na  pp-i  .-nyai  na  hdj  nbro  vxb  nnn 

(All  I  weighed,  etc.,  page  82.) 

♦  paob  bp  tinsd  *6i  d^ird  ppa  Thpv  ban 

♦  von  ttaa  inn  jnn  paoia  ^>pi 

♦  n-iN  d^dd  m«  fnnD  bpi 

:  yoBF  Dnc:a  nan  a^D  nnac  bpi 

(A  person  dependent,  etc.,  page  82.) 

:  raa  -pn  d^iu  rran  p^-by  noron-to 


144  APPENDIX. 

(Evil  to  the  poor,  etc.,  page  82.) 

♦  nib"1?  F]N  cm  ^v  wbD 
♦  inna  onn  anna  uj  d^  bzvi 

.  &wh  Th2  1C17D  inh  D"^  ntDD 

(No  pains  like,  etc.,  page  82.) 

:  nyi  he/n  *6i  nirrte  ab  3W  *6i  awte 

(As  each  bird,  etc.,  page  83.) 

:  ib  norb  d-in  pi  par1  irob  ppirte 

(The  heart  of  man,  etc.,  page  83.) 

:  y^b  p  m^b  p  ns  rw  din  2/ 

(Out  of  thy  house,  etc.,  page  83.) 

.  -jrv:H?K  wan  ten  *6i  "]rva  -pno  D^ai  md 
.  *6nd  -in*6  -|-no  nbi  -p'frp  ^*n  ivp  can 

:  t»d  Tins  -iidb  qpTi  naai^ia 

(Prize  it  highly,  etc.,  page  83.) 

:  -p^in  d^tjj  pi  *]DDnm  ntete 

(The  lives  of  three,  etc.,  page  84.) 

.  rvan  jnteb  neson  o^n  jr«  jrvn  ne^p 
:  idm  pteiia'  piD1^  "'Di  vte  nb^iD  in»w&  w 

(The  following,  three,  etc.,  page  84.) 

rvan  n^  djdjhi  nip  ■'onoa  nat^  a^ioni 

:  Diane 

(Listen  sir,  etc.,  page  84.) 

.  nan  !?«  -paw  Dm  now  ^n  ^hk  j?e^ 
♦  -pap  dv  nano  hto  "uin  "jb  at? 

:-pie6  te  man  icain  *?«  jn  nan  -pana  n\sn  dm 


RIDDLES   IN   THE   TALMUD.  14.*) 

(Do  not  rely,  etc.,  page  84.) 

py  ^  py  ppoir-6  nftDrr1?*!  nrrbrai 
:  *iw  mr  d  wn  byi  id*?  f]W  d-di  CDrni 

4.  Alphabet  of   Ben   Sira. 

.  nann  r^-  D^m  "o  -ja^n  nam  jnn  ■?«  a. 
•  nap^6  HD^n  n^cpb  -p-iir  Nam  *>• 

•  npdim  wwbi  Kwna  KD'onb  a- 

♦  *0£r6  ■ran  vinoac  TpiD  e- 

♦  p^D  pEn:  TplD  p^n  -ru   f. 

*6a«  NpTni  mcb  Nr6a«  Nmno  Nanp  h. 

♦  mo1? 

•  rra  n^r  na  rvb  nwaip  w^rn   *• 

:  piap  n  *6  -]^bj  ma^Di  "|b  pn"»  pa^te  pnc?  t 

CHAPTER  IX. 

RIDDLES. 
(High  from  heaven,  etc.,  page  87.) 

nepw  d^d 
nrva  tot:}  rpoin 

o^eaa  ^ya  ^a  ninsD 
warni  anyj  min 

HDi;  lDp  D'WeH 

in  ti  id^  djh 
:  i:iya  na^u  la^ni 


146  APPENDIX. 


CHAPTER  X. 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

1.  A  Rabbi-Poet. 

(When  the  glorious  temple,  etc.,  page  97.) 

EHpon  rra  Kin  -pa  ernpn  annnp  njwa 

na"pn  was 

nn^  hd"  ib  idn  •  anpon  rvaa  nciy  Dnna*6 

"?">rvaa 
i«esn  -pa  •  ib  -idn  :  ^n^a  "ua  "pDy  by  •  )h  nDN 

nmew "  •  lb  idn  :  lN&n  jj  i#a  ND&r  •  lb  idn 

: /;  own  "  •  *b  *idk  :  inddh  DCDiro  hep  •  ib  idn 
♦  ib  -ien  :  rb^D  nnj  Dr6  niaib  -(?  nn  •  ib  -112K 
runon  dn  ndp  •  V'N  r^fla  nay  enp  i»ar 

:  naicyna  pnn  rn  rb 
wan  by  it  n^n  td  j  "  ^yn  tn  lanjn  'o "  •  b"K 
crib  pN  nbw\  on  nop  •  *idw  nam  pyix  Tni 

?  ru  pn 
ixn  ne  nc  pin  m "  *  ib  n^DKi  bip  na  nnsr 

♦  -]DD  "  Nip 

rvrvn'n  ijni  rrby  ew  rrsn  nbi-u  nbisn  bipb 


rowi  ^1  ti 

."pnn  ana  ^DBunn 

,ani  ^opna  npEnncn 

,p-w  nana  n^inon 

:  onj;  nm  nnwran 


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